Tree Protection Research Articles

Larches of Kuzhanovo Have a Unique Mutation in the atpF–atpH Intergenic Spacer

The larches of Kuzhanovo (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) are protected trees with a round crown growing in the Southern Urals. In 2020 vandals sawed the sapwood of these trees, which exposed the problem of insufficient conservation measures. Their origin and genetic characteristics have been of particular interest to breeders and scientists. The larches of Kuzhanovo were screened for polymorphisms using SSR and ISSR analyses and the sequencing of genetic markers and genes GIGANTEA and mTERF, associated with wider crown shape. A unique mutation was discovered in the atpF-atpH intergenic spacer of all protected trees, but it was absent in some of their descendants and larches with similar crown shape. Mutations were discovered in the rpoC1 and mTERF genes of all samples. Flow cytometry did not reveal any changes in genome size. Our results suggest that the unique phenotype arose from point mutations in L. sibirica, but they are yet to be found in the nuclear genome. The concurrent mutations in the rpoC1 and mTERF genes may indicate that the round crown shape originates from the Southern Urals. The atpF-atpH and rpoC1 genetic markers are not common in studies of Larix sp., but their wider use could help to establish the origin of these endangered plants. The discovery of the unique atpF-atpH mutation also allows for stronger conservation and crime detection efforts.

Associational protection of urban ash trees treated with systemic insecticides against emerald ash borer.

Emerald ash borer (EAB), Agrilus plannipenis Fairmaire, is an invasive insect accidentally introduced to North America from Asia that attacks and kills ash trees (Fraxinus spp.). A common control strategy in urban centers has been the injection of systemic insecticides into mature trees, which can be costly at large scales. This study investigated whether treating a subset of a susceptible urban ash population could confer associational protection to untreated trees; i.e. improving or maintaining crown health of the latter. We selected approximately 100 mature ash trees along city streets in each of 12 sites in central and southeastern Minnesota in 2017. Each site had low but growing infestations of EAB such that canopy decline was not yet widespread. We treated 50% of trees with emamectin benzoate in eight sites and 50% of trees in four sites with azadirachtin in site-wide spatial gradients, such that the remaining 50% of trees at all sites were left untreated. Crown health of all trees was monitored for five years (2017 to 2021). Across all sites, we noted an overall maintenance or increase in crown health of both treated and untreated trees, while groups of untreated reference trees approximately three km distant from each site to monitor general tree health and EAB pressure declined quickly. These results suggested that protective benefits were conferred by treated trees to untreated trees within sites. Quantifying the spatial scale of canopy preservation of untreated trees within sites proved challenging due to the lack of variation in crown condition between treated and untreated trees. In two of the twelve sites treated with emamectin benzoate, we noted statistical evidence of improvements in crown condition of untreated trees when located within 100m of treated trees. Treating a subset of a susceptible ash population may aid in preserving untreated trees and provides a basis for developing a more cost-effective and environmentally favorable treatment regimen against EAB.

Commercial uses of antitranspirants in crop production: A review

Global food security is at risk due to the predicted climate change, making it imperative for agronomists to provide adaptive technologies that will sustain and improve food production. Rainfed agriculture, prone to drought, covers an estimated 80% of global cropland. One of the adaptive technologies is the use of antitranspirants – products that are applied on plants to reduce transpirational water loss and increase crop performance under drought conditions. The benefits of improving antitranspirant adoption in drought mitigation are expected to be high, especially in many drought-prone low-income countries where crop production is almost wholly dependent on rainfall. The objective of this article was to review the commercial uses of antitranspirants in food and non-food crop production. The review revealed that in horticulture, antitranspirants have several commercial uses, in addition to drought mitigation, such as transplanting shock amelioration, protection of fruit against sunburn, enhancement of nutritional quality, synchronising fruit ripening, protection of fruit and nut trees against diseases. Use of antitranspirants in arable farming has been neglected for three main reasons: first, arable crops have lower market value, for example, in Melbourne (Australia) in October 2022, a tonne of grapes was worth US$ 2694.82 compared to US$ 277/tonne of wheat. Second, molecular genetics applied to crop breeding has risen as an alternative approach to drought mitigation, shifting attention from antitranspirants. Finally, the erroneous research conclusion in the 1970s that antitranspirants could not increase yield because they reduced photosynthesis discouraged commercialisation of antitranspirants in arable farming. An antitranspirant breakthrough to either lower the cost or create a multi-purpose product is needed for the production of arable crops, especially major cereals, as has been the case for non-drought amelioration uses in horticulture.

Watering in the light of Prophetic Hadith

This article focuses on the reconstruction, irrigation and greening of the land that are among the essential needs of humans. Watering and protection of the fruit trees that are available in the gardens, there should be a known share that is agreed between the owner of the land and the worker. Furthermore, the owner of the land hires a man in his palm trees or grape vineyards to take care of these trees. The worker should get a certain share of the fruit of these trees. In addition, this research includes: the definition of watering, its importance, the wisdom of its legislation. Its reasons are from the Qur’an and Sunnah, the sayings of the companions and the sayings of the Sahaba and the Islamic scholars. Watering has a high importance, because in addition to reducing unemployment in the society, it protects the environment from pollution, because where the grains and green crops grow it makes all over the environment and the earth beautiful. In addition, the result of irrigation increases livelihood, creates job opportunities and security, of course, an unemployed person always ends up in quarrels and fights with her family, tribes, neighbors and society, and may even turn to drugs and addiction.

Dendrology and Lightning Protection

The protection of trees against lightning—especially historically significant ones, high-value trees, and tall trees within 10 ft of a structure—began around the beginning of the 20th century. Arborists derived their methods and standards of protection from the electrical engineer’s solutions used to protect tall structures. The fundamentals for this protection originated more than 300 years ago in Philadelphia, as described in Benjamin Franklin’s pamphlet “Experiments and Observations on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in America” <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">[1]</xref> . Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society (the oldest learned society) in 1743 with contemporary scholars including his close friend and consult in all things related to trees and shrubs, John Bartram, the famous botanist. Bartram collected and studied trees and shrubs from all of the original 13 states and created the first botanical garden in Philadelphia. In 1795, he discovered the <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Franklinia alatamaha</i> tree, which he named in honor of his close family friend Benjamin Franklin <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref2" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">[2]</xref> .

Inspection and Imaging of Tree Trunk Defects Using GPR Multifrequency Full-Waveform Dual-Parameter Inversion

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has been regarded as a potentially efficient way of evaluating the growth status of trees and preventing deterioration associated with trunk defects. However, the majority of current GPR data inversions focused on imaging the macroscale location of defects. As the first attempt to seek a preferable quantitative inversion methodology for specifying tree protection and remedies, this paper proposes a full-waveform inversion approach involving dual-parameter attributes applied to common-offset GPR data from a commercial antenna. Specifically, the synchronous inversion of both dielectric constant and conductivity improves the identification accuracy of certain defect types. In particular, both a multi-frequency strategy and total-variation regularization are seamlessly introduced to assure inversion stability by overcoming local minima and cycle skipping. Through an irregular trunk model test, the effectiveness of the optimized inversion is initially verified by presenting the precise features of the crack, hollow, and decay with the dual parameter inversion results. In addition, several other synthetic trunk models and in-site trunk model tests further demonstrate the robustness and practicability of the proposed algorithm, which can offer more specific and comprehensive guidance for the formulation of tree protection and restoration measures.

Prognozowanie parcha jabłoni i ocena zagrożenia chorobowego na podstawie wskazań wybranych modeli

The paper presents a review of the most important research achievements in the field of signaling the threat of apple scab – the most dangerous disease of apple trees. The first criteria for determining the conditions and timing of leaf infection by Venturia inaequalis were developed in the United States. These criteria were then verified and improved for the most important apple growing regions in the world. Various systems and prognostic models have been developed, the indications of which are helpful in making decisions regard¬ing the protection of apple trees against scab. However, the data obtained does not always accurately indicate the potential threat, and therefore it is necessary to check the suitability of the models in specific conditions, and if necessary and possible – to improve them. From the point of view of fruit-growing practice, it is essential to set the dates for the start and end of release of ascospores of the dis¬ease causing agent, to define infection risk and to perform protective treatments on time. Noteworthy is the Italian model A-scab, some parameters of which should be calibrated taking into account its usefulness in Polish conditions.

The effects of climate and land use change on the potential distribution and nesting habitat of the Lesser Adjutant in Nepal

Climate change and land use change pose a threat to the world's biodiversity and have significant impacts on the geographic distribution and composition of many bird species, but little is known about how they affect threatened large-sized waterbird species that rely on agricultural landscapes. To address this gap, we investigated how climate and land use changes influence the distribution and nesting habitats of the globally vulnerable Lesser Adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus) in Nepal. Between 2012 and 2023, we collected distribution data from 24 districts and nesting site information from 18 districts. In a nation-wide breeding survey conducted in 2020, we documented a total of 581 fledglings from 346 nests in 109 colonies. The ensemble model predicted a current potential distribution of 15% (21,637 ​km2) and a potential nesting habitat of 13% (19,651 ​km2) for the species in Nepal. The highest predicted current suitable distribution and nesting habitat was in Madhesh Province, while none was predicted in Karnali Province. The majority of this predicted distributional and nesting habitat falls on agricultural landscapes (>70%). Our model showed a likely range expansion of up to 15% (21,573 ​km2) for the distribution and up to 12% (17,482 ​km2) for the nesting habitat under SSP5–8.5 scenarios for the 2070s. The range expansion is expected to occur mainly within the current distribution and breeding range (Tarai and some regions of Siwalk), particularly in Lumbini and Sudurpashchim provinces, and extend to the northern portions (Siwalik and Mid-hill regions) in other provinces. However, the current Protected Areas and Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas are inadequate for providing optimal habitats for the species. Although the model suggests range expansion, the use of such novel habitats is primarily contingent on the availability and protection of large-sized trees (particularly Bombax ceiba, observed in 65% of colonies) in agricultural regions where nesting occurs. Therefore, our research suggests that agricultural landscapes should be prioritized in management plans for the conservation of the Lesser Adjutant in Nepal.

Urban ash management and emerald ash borer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae): facts, myths, and an operational synthesis

Abstract Survival of North American species of ash (Oleaceae: Fraxinus spp. L.) is threatened by emerald ash borer (EAB), Agrilus planipennis (Fairmaire), a phloem-feeding beetle that destroys the vascular system of its host. In forested sites where ash is a dominant overstory species, mortality caused by EAB can substantially alter conditions, with potentially cascading effects on ecosystems. In urban forests, ash trees were often abundant and provided an array of ecosystem services because of their rapid growth, capacity to withstand stressful urban conditions and prior to EAB, low pest load. Annualized costs of managing EAB on urban ash trees over the next 30 yr in the United States has been estimated to approach $1.8 billion. Numerous cost-benefit analyses have demonstrated that it is more cost effective to retain mature ash trees with systemic insecticides than to replace these trees in urban areas. Effective protection of urban ash trees depends on deployment of systemic insecticides before EAB injury disrupts the vascular system that transports insecticide to the canopy. Given the ongoing spread of EAB, timely management is critical for protecting urban ash canopies. Over the last 2 decades, we have encountered persistent myths that have hindered the adoption of protective measures to preserve urban ash in communities recently infested by EAB. Here we review these myths and counter them with research-based evidence that supports and justifies an ash management program. Finally, we use the 5 basic tenets of IPM to outline an approach for managing EAB in urban forests.

Prawnokarna ochrona drzew

Penal law protection of trees The article presents criminal law provisions that penalize the destruction or damage of trees. Only some of them protect trees as an essential element of nature. Other provisions primarily protect property, which includes trees as part of real estate. The analysis carried out in the study found that the legal protection of trees largely depends on the location where the tree grows. Some regulations apply to trees growing in forests, others to trees located in protected areas such as national parks, and others to trees located, for example, along the roadside. The study also presents the problem of the classification of a certain factual state and the conjunction of regulations. In many cases, the classification as a crime or a misdemeanor will be determined by whether a specific behavior resulted in substantial damage, which is an evaluative criterion. Also addressed is the problem of wobbler offenses, including the difficulty of determining the value of stolen timber or the amount of damage when a tree is destroyed or damaged.

Testing the Efficiency of the Push-and-Pull Strategy during Severe Ips typographus Outbreak and Extreme Drought in Norway Spruce Stands

Protection of Norway spruce stands using anti-attractants was tested during an outbreak of bark beetles (Ips typographus) in their spring flight. The aims of this study were as follows: (1) to test the proposed experimental design for tree protection; (2) to evaluate height-specific alternatives for dispenser installation on trees; and (3) to evaluate the efficiency of tree protection measures using anti-attractants under bark beetle infestation and drought stress. The experiment was conducted at the forest edges adjacent to recent clearcuts on 10 blocks in the eastern Czech Republic. Each block had three adjacent experimental areas, with 20 trees growing in two rows at the recently cut forest edge (10 trees per row). In front of a block in each of the three areas, four pheromone traps were installed. The treatment area was protected by anti-attractants. The second area served as a so-called switch area, where beetles from the treatment area, as the outflux redirected from the anti-attractant, would start new attacks if not caught in nearby pheromone traps. The third area was a control. We attached anti-attractant tube dispensers on each tree trunk of the treated area at two heights. The results suggest a redirecting effect of anti-attractants, pushing beetles into the switch area and causing subsequent attacks, which was greater than in areas containing treated trees. There was no difference between two dispensers placed at 1 and 8 m height and both at 1 m. A switching effect of beetle attacks occurring outside of the treated areas was observed. Mounting anti-attractant dispensers on tree trunks at one low position above the ground can be substantially less labour-intensive and as efficient as positioning them at two different heights. For areas affected by severe drought and extremely dense bark beetle populations, the use of anti-attractants did not prove effective.

Species extinction, traditional healing therapy, and religious worldview among the Tugen and Marakwet people of Kenya

This study sought to investigate how species extinction affected traditional herbal therapy, and how together they affected the religious attitudes of the people involved. This was an ethnographic study conducted among the Tugen and Keiyo people of Kenya in the Baringo and Elgeyo Marakwet Counties. Twenty participants were interviewed, involving 6 medicine persons, 8 people that have received traditional herbal therapy, and 6 experts on traditional medicine accessed through the snowball technique. Findings revealed that among the Tugen and Keiyo people of Kenya, traditional medicine men and women harvested roots, leaves, barks, fruits, or flowers, from indigenous trees, and made concoctions that were served to sick people to give them healing. In the Tugen and Keiyo understanding, healing from traditional medicine came as a package, involving not just the concoction, but also the rituals performed by the medicine persons. Reports have emerged that out of these practices, several ailments, common or chronic, have been successfully addressed. This study concludes traditional herbal therapy, involving the use of rituals and herbs, contributes to both physical healing of the people, spiritual healing of a community in relation to God, social healing of people in relation to their view of nature, and emotional healing of the people. This study recommends that the Christians of the Tugen and Elgeyo escarpment should campaign for the replanting and protection of indigenous trees along the escarpment.

Potential hazard characteristics of trees with hollows, cavities and fruiting bodies growing along pedestrian routes

This article is a study of risk assessment of trees with hollows, cavities and fruiting bodies for the improvement of the management and protection of urban trees growing along pedestrian routes. 317 trees were examined using TRAQ risk classes, VTA and ISA BMP methodology, Roloff's vitality classification, and sonic tomography (SoT) during the spring and summer of 2021. The collected data was analysed using the Kruskal–Wallis H-test, the Dunn multiple comparison test, the pairwise comparison of proportions with Holm correction, the U-Manna-Whitney test, and the Fisher exact test. The analysed trees grow alongside public footpaths and footways in central Zakopane, Poland. The study results indicate that tree trunk hollows are judged to have no adverse effects on a tree’s vitality when assessed using visual methods and are deemed to have a limited effect on vitality estimated with SoT. Though most high and moderate-risk trees, according to SoT (88% and 80%, respectively), had hollows, such trees were a small fraction of all 171 trees with hollows, cavities and/or fruiting bodies, 2.3% and 8.8%, respectively. Therefore, the decision to remove a tree should be based on advice from a professional arborist, supported by sonic tomography (SoT) or similar objective methods.

Extinction risk to the endemic trees of Papua New Guinea

Societal Impact StatementPapua New Guinea has a diverse tree flora. Now for the first time we know that 460 (36%) of its endemic tree species are threatened with extinction in the wild. These trees require immediate conservation action, through a variety of methods. Protection of trees is essential in Papua New Guinea as many people across the country rely on them for their livelihoods. Additionally, the extinction of these species would mean the loss of unique biodiversity. With the majority of forest cover still remaining in Papua New Guinea, it presents an almost unique opportunity to save tree diversity at a large scale and should therefore be at the forefront of the conservation agenda.Summary Papua New Guinea is one of the world's most tree diverse countries, with over 1,200 endemic tree species. However, forests within the country face a range of threats but the impact of these threats on individual tree species has yet to be studied. Without identifying which species are threatened, where they are and their major threats it is not possible to effectively prioritise conservation actions for the trees of Papua New Guinea. The Global Tree Assessment for Papua New Guinea produced International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessments for over 90% of tree species endemic to Papua New Guinea. The assessments compiled information on extinction risk, major threats, conservation and research needs for the country's tree flora. Four hundred and sixty tree species are threatened with extinction, including 143 Critically Endangered species. This is 36% of the country's endemic tree flora. The majority of tree species are threatened by annual‐perennial non‐timber crop farming, logging and establishment of wood and pulp plantations. The change in land use instigated by these threats causes lowland tropical/sub‐tropical forest to be the most threatened habitat types for trees. To protect Papua New Guinea's diverse tree flora, a range of conservation activities are required. Both in situ and ex situ conservation efforts, which are species specific, are needed and activities should be supported on a local, national and international level with continued and expanded collaboration between international NGOs and botanists and specialists working in Papua New Guinea.

The Use of Potassium Phosphonate (KHP) for the Control of Major Apple Pests.

Phosphonate-based products have demonstrated diverse abilities to protect crops against pests, with various modes of action proposed. In this article, we specifically investigated potassium phosphonate (KHP) on apple crops. Its performance to control three major apple bioagressors (Venturia inaequalis, Erwinia amylovora, and Dysaphis plantaginea) was evaluated under semicontrolled conditions. The product was able to confer significant protection rates (40 to 75% for apple scab, 40% for fire blight, and 30% for rosy aphid), which can be explained by its more or less efficient biocidal activity against the three pests, and by its ability to induce apple immunity (pathogenesis-related proteins and secondary metabolites genes). A cumulative effect of treatments as well as the systemic behavior of the product was demonstrated. Fields trials against apple scab and the postharvest disease bull's eyes rot (Neofabraea vagabunda) were performed on different apple varieties by applying KHP combined with light pest management programs either reducing (dessert orchards) or suppressing (cider orchards) fungicide applications. KHP was able to reduce apple scab by 70 to 90% on shoots and young and harvested fruit, and bull's eyes rot by 70 to 90% on harvested fruit. Overall, our results indicate that KHP is useful for the protection of apple trees against its major pests by direct effect and by triggering the host defense system.

Screening of antagonistic strains &lt;i&gt;Trichoderma&lt;/i&gt; Pers. towards causative agent of root rot in apples of genus Fusarium Link.

In recent years, in the south of Russia, fungi of the genus Fusarium Link (1809) constitute a special danger to such important agricultural perennial crops as the apple tree. Тhese fungi cause root rot, a harmful disease, which weakens the vascular organs, leading to a significant decrease in yield and even death of the plant. A literature review showed that the genus Trichoderma has great potential for the integrated protection of apple trees. In this regard, due to the lack of registered microbiological agents for the control of fusarium root rot in apple trees, the search for antagonistic strains for biotechnological control of this disease becomes relevant. In this work, the parasitic activity of strains of the genus Trichoderma against the causative agents of root rot in apple trees, namely Fusarium sporotrichioides and Fusarium oxysporum, was studied in vitro. Тhe research was carried out in 2020–2021 in the Laboratory of biotechnological control of phytopathogens and phytophages of the FGBSO “North Caucasian Federal Scientific Center of Horticulture, Viticulture and Winemaking”. Тhe research was focused on monoconidial strains of the causative agent of apple root rot: F. sporotrichioides (strain RR20XXIV/4.3) and F. oxysporum (strain RR20XXV/6.2), as well as 7 strains of the genus Trichoderma having expected antagonistic activity. Тhe activity of strains of the genus Trichoderma against fungi of the genus Fusarium was determined by the dual culture method using joint splicing on the PGA medium (potato-glucose agar). Тhe Trichocin, SP (titer 1010 CFU/g Trichoderma harzianum, strain G-30 VISR), registered against root rot for a number of crops, was used as a standard. A monoculture of the test object (strains of the genus Fusarium) was used as a control. Out of the 7 strains of antagonistic fungi, strains 20I/1 and 20II/2 showed the greatest activity against F. sporotrichioides by a dual mechanism of action, which involves competition for a nutrient medium and fungicidal parasitic antagonism; the latter strain showed hyperparasitism. Antibiotic (strain 20XIV/5) and alimentary antagonisms (strain 20II/3.2) were also detected. Strain 20XIV/5 showed antibiotic antagonism against F. oxysporum, having higher activity than the standard; strain 20I/1 showed alimentary antagonism. Тhe remaining antagonist strains showed competitive interactions for the environment.

International Laws and Regulations on Cutting of Trees

Forests are a gift of nature. Association of trees is with human beings from time immemorial. Trees knowno boundaries. Principles to save trees are universal in nature. Laws on protection of trees evolved with theevolution of laws. It is a modern concern to save trees as the increase in a world population, the demand forexploitation of trees for timber and furniture has increased. The United Nations as world organization hastaken keen interest in the protection of trees. In the present article I have dealt with the laws,rules andregulation for protection of trees in Australia, Brazil, Canada and the United States of America.

A Combined Methods of Senile Trees Inventory in Sustainable Urban Greenery Management on the Example of the City of Sandomierz (Poland)

The sustainable management of urban greenery consists, among others, of the inventory, valuation, and protection of trees of monumental size. This article presents the results of the inspection of 13 large trees growing in the city of Sandomierz, located in south-eastern Poland. The examined specimens belong to five species: Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.), common ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.), white poplar (Populus alba L.), English oak (Quercus robur L.), and small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill.). The health condition of the trees was assessed using acoustic and electrical tomography, as well as chlorophyll fluorescence tests. Diagnostics employing sound waves and electrical resistivity were crucial in assessing tree health. The data based on chlorophyll fluorescence confirmed the results obtained during tomographic examinations. It was an innovative combination of three non-invasive methods of examining the health condition of trees and their valuation. Economic valuation allows us to reduce to common denominator issues that are often difficult to decide due to different perspectives—expressing the economic value of trees. Calculating the value of trees allowed us to show the city’s inhabitants the value of trees that are of monumental size. Thanks to the cooperation of scientists with the city authorities, an economic plan for trees of monumental size was created, distinguished by an individualized and holistic approach to each specimen covered by the study. The database prepared has a chance to become an effective management instrument used by environmental protection authorities and a source of knowledge and education for the city’s inhabitants.

Importance, Tools, and Challenges of Protecting Trees

Trees are the most important landscape architects of our planet, not only in forests but also in countless other ecosystems, including human-fabricated habitats. Due to their significance in the majority of terrestrial ecosystems, trees play an important role in maintaining biodiversity and providing food and habitat for countless microorganisms, fungi, climbers, invertebrates, and vertebrates. Trees are also indispensable for the development of human societies and are important for our survival today and in the future. Trees therefore have an inestimable scientific, economic, social, cultural, and aesthetic value. In addition, they were and are playing an essential role in myths, rituals, and cultures of nearly all indigenous and modern societies. Despite these facts, the protection of trees is insufficient, both globally due to climate change and deforestation, but also locally, for example in the big cities through deterioration of soils or improper care. In industrialized countries, only recently has the need for targeted protection efforts for tree species or even for individual trees been recognized. Our review starts with the differentiation and definitions of forests and trees. Furthermore, we present the main categories and subcategories of trees, each of them possessing different functions in their ecosystems and for human societies and thus needing specific legal protection measures. The second part of our review presents the most important tools for improving the protection of trees. On the one hand, there exist a series of international initiatives, conventions, and agreements, and on the other hand, there are numerous legal tools, such as red lists, lists of protected species, and legislation for the protection of monument and habitat trees. The main challenge of the 21st century is to find a solution to make the development and growth of modern human societies compatible with the protection of natural resources such as forests. The large number of tree species, as well as the large proportion of threatened tree species, makes this problem even larger. Finally, the most recent and controversial approach of attributing trees the rights as legal persons is discussed.

Assessment of air toxicity in the megalopolis of Krasnoyarsk using long-term monitoring of suburban pine forests.

The present study develops the application of suburban forests as bioindicators, with the industrial metropolis of Krasnoyarsk (Central Siberia, Russia) taken as an example. Huge forests, such as those found in large Siberian territories, are climate-forming for the entire planet. Hence, their conservation is essential at both the local and global scales. During the period 2002-2021, the vigor state of two pine forests was evaluated using several inventory and morphological parameters: needle damage, deterioration in tree condition, increased entropy, and tree mortality. Additionally, an original bioindication parameter was applied: episodic increase in the size of needles was analyzed. We hypothesized that this increase in needle size was related to the activation of tree protection at the initial stage of tree damage; the mechanism assumes a redirection of sugar transport into the crown to aid tree regeneration. All parameters were measured annually on six permanent sample plots; each plot included 200-300 numbered trees of similar age (approximately 60-80 years). The long-term parameter changes were analyzed and attributed to chronic exposure to industrial air pollution. Significant changes in pine-forest parameters observed over the past few years (2019-2021) may indicate an approaching stage of irreversible toxic damage that is the destruction of the entire forest system. The results encourage involving forest-based bioindication in the regional system of ecological monitoring. Forest-based bioindication can be used as a tool for evaluating the efficiency of long-term governmental activity on air quality in industrial metropolises. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:980-987. © 2022 SETAC.