Protection Motivation Theory Research Articles

Predictors of risk reduction behavior: Evidence in last-mile communities

Despite extensive research using Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) to analyze factors influencing protective behaviors during disasters, understanding how last-mile communities in vulnerable contexts—particularly in the Philippines—respond to early warning messages remains limited. This understanding is crucial, as these communities often bear the brunt of extreme weather events. Drawing data from surveys and semi-structured interviews, this study examined the predictors of risk reduction behaviors before and after Super Typhoon Mangkhut in two last-mile communities in Northern Philippines — Cabalitian and Mapita. Regression analysis demonstrated that all threat appraisal variables—perceived vulnerability, perceived severity, and fear—are predictors of risk reduction behaviors before Mangkhut. Coping appraisal variables, specifically response efficacy and self-efficacy, also positively influenced risk reduction action before Mangkhut. Among socio-demographic variables, only gender and age are predictors of risk reduction behaviors, with their influence varying between the two communities. Expanding the application of PMT, prior typhoon experience, trust, and social network strength also positively and significantly influenced risk reduction behaviors before and after Mangkhut. The study identified key infrastructural, institutional, and operational interventions to enhance coping capacity and reduce vulnerability in these communities, alongside policy implications to inform disaster risk reduction strategies and empower local preparedness efforts.

Interregional watershed services: Valuation of the benefits of controlled embankment breaches to manage urban flood risk

The Lower Mekong delta of Vietnam, particularly Can Tho city, is highly susceptible to flooding which urgently calls for significant efforts to mitigate urban flood risks. A possible measure to reduce flood risk is the application of controlled embankment breaches (CEB) in a rural province upstream. Utilising a Protection Motivation Theory approach, this paper uses a contingent valuation to assess the welfare effects of a reduction of flood risks in the city resulting from CEB in the upstream region of the delta. The findings revealed that households residing in the downstream areas of Vietnamese Mekong Delta were willing to financially support the implementation of the CEB upstream in An Giang city, as a measure to alleviate urban flood threats in Can Tho city. These results suggest that interregional cooperation, involving the concept of payments for watershed services between regional jurisdictions, may help to effectively mitigate flood risk in a low-lying population centre in a major river delta. As such, these findings can inform policies for urban flood risk mitigation regarding the development of a more comprehensive flood risk reduction strategy in similar geographical contexts.

Why Are Young People Willing to Pay for Health? Chained Mediation Effect of Negative Emotions and Information Seeking on Health Risk Perception and Health Consumption Behavior.

The perception of health risks can influence people's health behaviors. However, in the context of modern consumer society, few people delve into in-depth discussions on health consumption as a form of health protection behavior. Inspired by the Health Belief Model and Protection Motivation Theory, this study interprets health consumption behavior as a new form of health protection behavior. A survey was conducted on a sample of Chinese youth (N = 885) to explore the mechanisms of action between health risk perception and health consumption behavior using structural equation modeling. The study found that: (1) health risk perception has a significant positive impact on the health consumption behavior of young people; (2) negative emotions and information seeking play mediating roles respectively in the mechanism of the impact of health risk perception on health consumption behavior; and (3) in addition to their individual mediating roles, negative emotions and information seeking behavior collectively play a chained mediation role in this process. Implications of these results, both theoretical and practical, are further discussed.

Sell your soul for a pot of gold: Privacy paradox in surveillance capitalism

The current study aims to examine the underlying psychological processes involved in privacy protection behaviors among tourists in retail environments using surveillance technologies. Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) and Privacy Calculus Theory (PCT) were employed to understand threat and coping appraisals, benefits (control vs monetary), and their relationships with protective behavioral intentions and actual behaviors. Data was collected from 554 respondents who had visited a retail store while traveling in the past 6 months using an online questionnaire. Three structural equation models, full mediation, partial mediation, and moderated mediation were tested and compared. The partial mediation model exhibited the best fit. Perceived severity and susceptibility increased protective behavioral intentions, while self-efficacy decreased intentions. Control compensation positively influenced intentions only. Behavioral intentions partially mediated relationships between independent variables and actual protective behaviors. No significant moderation effects were found. Integrating PMT and PCT addresses a significant gap in examining tourists’ privacy-protective behaviors in retail surveillance contexts. Additionally, it clarifies the effectiveness of control and monetary benefits in mitigating privacy concerns.

Chinese physicians’ perceptions and willingness to use telemedicine during the COVID-19 pandemic

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic catalysed the rapid uptake of telemedicine as a vital tool for physicians to provide healthcare services to patients. However, despite the potential advantages of telemedicine, there remains a paucity of research examining physicians’ attitudes and utilisation patterns towards this mode of healthcare delivery. Therefore, this study investigated the factors impacting physicians’ telemedicine utilisation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology and protection motivation theory, a cross-sectional survey was conducted between June 3rd and October 26th, 2022. A structural equation model was subsequently developed to validate the response-based research model. Of the 296 physicians surveyed, 134 reported an increase in the frequency of telemedicine use following the COVID-19 pandemic, and 88.9% of respondents supported the implementation of telemedicine services at their hospitals. The analysis revealed that perceived vulnerability, perceived severity, performance expectations, effort expectations, and facilitating conditions were significant factors influencing physicians’ willingness to adopt telemedicine. Importantly, the results suggest that strategies to enhance the usefulness and convenience of telemedicine systems are imperative for fostering adoption. Such efforts will be instrumental in expediting the promotion and implementation of internet-based healthcare services to enhance the accessibility of healthcare services in China.

Investigating the influence of information sources on flood-coping appraisal: Insights into flood mitigation behaviour

Understanding how individuals and communities respond to flood risks is paramount for effective disaster management and community resilience. This study investigates the impact of information sources on the coping appraisal of Australian flood-prone communities (flood-coping appraisal) to gain insight into flood mitigation behaviour. Utilizing the cognitive process of Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) and integrating it with the Health Belief Model (HBM), a comprehensive framework is developed to explore the interplay between sources of information, cognitive appraisals, and coping responses. Using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), data from a research survey are analysed to examine the relationships between latent variables within the framework. The results reveal two key components significantly affecting flood-coping appraisal: Benefit/barrier Appraisal and Social Environment. Benefit/barrier Appraisal evaluates individuals' perceptions of the cost-effectiveness of mitigation measures, their potential impacts on property appearance, and property resale value, while the Social Environment assesses individuals’ observational learning from social norms and the availability of social support. Additionally, experiences with floods inside buildings emerge as a significant factor influencing the flood-coping appraisal. The findings underscore the importance of understanding the sources of information that drive higher flood-coping appraisal for effective flood risk management and community resilience. These insights contribute to developing targeted flood risk communication strategies to promote adaptive behaviours and enhance community resilience in the face of flood hazards.

Place attachment, spirituality and residential water conservation behaviour in Australia’s Northern Territory: application of an extended protection motivation theory

ABSTRACT Despite warnings of impending water scarcity concerns, most residents persistently engage in excessive water consumption behaviours, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. This has spurred interest in understanding why water demand management strategies fail to foster voluntary residential conservation behaviours. Recent literature indicates a lack of consideration of cultural factors that may influence residential water conservation. Thus, this study draws on and extends the protection motivation theory with place attachment and spirituality to examine how cultural and psychological factors influence residential water conservation intention and behaviour. Analysing 346 survey responses, the study reveals that place attachment amplifies vulnerability and severity perceptions regarding water scarcity concerns and significantly drives perceptions of self and response efficacies for water conservation intention and behaviour. In particular, the study reveals that as a resident’s spirituality increases, the intention for water conservation behaviour reduces. The study highlights theoretical and practical implications for scholars and policymakers.

What encourages pro-environmental behavior by tourists? Insights from the protection motivation theory

What encourages pro-environmental behavior by tourists? Insights from the protection motivation theory

Rain on the Parade of Influenza Vaccine Hesitancy

Abstract: Background: Following the protection motivation theory (PMT), a lack of risk perception is one of the reasons for differences in vaccine uptake ( Rogers, 1975 ). When the risk for diseases like seasonal influenza is underestimated, protective measures such as vaccination are used less. Aims: In this paper, we propose that the sequelae approach, which involves providing information about the severe complications of diseases, can influence people’s risk perceptions and their intention to vaccinate. This is in comparison to providing merely information about the disease itself. Method: Three preregistered online experiments (2017–2019) were conducted to examine whether risk perceptions and vaccination intentions increase when (1) information about sequelae is presented as statistical texts or narratives (vs. not presented at all), (2) known or unknown sequelae (myocardial infarction vs. sepsis), and (3) different target populations (e.g., health literacy) are considered. Results: An internal meta-analysis showed that the sequelae approach increases intentions ( SMD = .39[.20;.59]) but not risk perception ( SMD = .09[−.10;.27]). Unknown and known sequelae had an equal impact on vaccination intentions. None of the strategies (narratives vs. statistical texts, sequelae type) produced adverse reactions in people with low health literacy. In addition, no evidence was found for boomerang effects. Limitations: Even though our research was based on PMT, we cannot add evidence on self-efficacy or response efficacy as influential factors. Conclusion: Although increased risk perception is not the primary mechanism behind the sequelae approach, the results support the use of this strategy in educational interventions that target vaccine hesitancy.

Validation and usability of SeDAR e-health video for enhancing cervical cancer screening.

The cervical cancer (CC) incidence rate is increasing among young women aged <50 years despite early screening is proven effective. Electronic health (e-health) has great potential for disseminating health education. This study validated a newly developed e-health tool "SeDAR®" and assessed its usability via evaluations by health experts (HE), media experts (ME), and women. The SeDAR® content was developed based on protection motivation theory (PMT) using the nominal group technique and in-depth interviews that involved HE and women, respectively. Content validation was performed among the HE (n = 12) and ME (n = 5) using the content validation index (CVI) to identify their agreement. Subsequently, the Video Engagement Scale (VES®) was used to validate SeDAR® among women of different ethnicities (n = 11) to achieve ecological validity. The experts and women also commented on the presentation of the video. The validation yielded a good CVI among the HE (scale-level CVI-average [SCVI/Ave] = 0.986; scale-level CVI-universal agreement [SCVI/UA] = 0.900) and ME (SCVI/Ave = 0.979, SCVI/UA = 0.897). The highest VES® score [mean (±SD) = 92.90(±3.46)] proved the ecological validity of SeDAR®. The experts' feedback established that SeDAR® conveyed a clear message about awareness of performing CC screening and was suitable for public viewing. The women considered SeDAR® easy to understand, and it advised early exposure for early CC screening. SeDAR® was valid and could constitute an important e-health tool to improve motivation and uptake of CC screening.

Organizational Environment, Protection Motives, Adoption of Machine Learning, and Cybersecurity Behavior

The research presented in this intensive study uncovers the complex interaction between organizational and individual drivers affecting cybersecurity behavior within organizations. Its major focus is analyzing the impact of organizational policies and culture, training, and awareness programs on the cybersecurity conduct of employees. This paper also examines self-protective behavior related to risk perception, perceived self-efficiency, and response efficacy, which explains how these variables may influence self-protective behaviors. According to the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), the study unravels how individuals' different elements of threat appraisal, coping appraisal, and cost-benefit analysis contribute to their decisions to apply cybersecurity behaviors. It also underlines that machine learning is being used more and more in cybersecurity and demonstrates some important ML concepts in modern cybersecurity, such as picking up the right data to train with, coping with adversarial attacks, and, last but not least, making the models interpretable. Ultimately, having a comprehensive understanding of these cybersecurity behaviors may shed new light on mechanisms that can be used to develop cybersecurity strategies and technologies to help protect against the rapidly changing landscape of cyber threats. All research papers have an abstract. It can be created by simply compiling the main points (summary) of each section of the research paper.

The Mpox Vaccine Hesitancy Scale for Mpox: Links with Vaccination Intention among Men Who Have Sex with Men in Six Cities of China.

Vaccine hesitancy is a significant barrier to achieving high vaccination rates, particularly among men who have sex with men (MSM), a group at increased risk for Mpox. This study aimed to develop and validate a Mpox vaccine hesitancy scale specifically tailored for Chinese MSM, grounded in the protection motivation theory (PMT). An online survey through snowball sampling was conducted from October 2023 to March 2024, collecting 2403 valid responses across six representative regions in China. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were conducted to evaluate the scale's construct validity, while reliability was assessed using Cronbach's α coefficient. The predictive validity of the scale was analyzed using Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis. EFA ultimately retained 22 items in the Mpox vaccination scale and identified four distinct dimensions: Maladaptive Rewards (seven items), Self-efficacy (seven items), Response Efficacy (four items), and Response Costs (four items). These dimensions were confirmed by CFA, which demonstrated satisfactory model fit indices (χ²/df = 4.382, RMSEA = 0.053, SRMR = 0.048, GFI = 0.935, CFI = 0.967, NFI = 0.958, TLI = 0.963, and IFI =0.967). All indices were within acceptable ranges. The scale exhibited good internal consistency, with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.906, and strong content validity, with an S-CVI/Ave of 0.952. The scale's predictive accuracy was evaluated using Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis. When used to evaluate the scale's predictive accuracy, it yielded an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.854 after adjustments, indicating good predictive ability between high and low hesitancy. This scale provides a reliable and valid tool for assessing Mpox vaccine hesitancy among MSM and can be used to gauge Mpox vaccination intention within this group.

"Life as We Knew It": Continued Challenges in Getting Up-to-Date COVID-19 Vaccinations Amongst Black and Latinx Michigan Residents.

Minority communities are disproportionately impacted by COVID-19. In Michigan in 2024, 59% of Latinx residents, 46% of Black residents, and 57% of White residents have received at least one dose of the vaccine. However, just 7% of Black residents and 6% of Latinx residents report being up-to-date per CDC definition, versus 13% of White residents. Drawing from protection motivation theory, we aimed to identify barriers to COVID-19 vaccination. Interviews with 24 Black and 10 Latinx Michigan residents self-reported as not up-to-date (n = 15) or up-to-date (n = 19) on COVID-19 vaccines were conducted in 2022-2023. We used a community-based participatory approach in collaboration with 16 leaders from 15 organizations to develop research questions, interview protocols, and methods for data collection and analysis. Thematic coding of interviews was conducted. Findings indicate participants' lack of confidence in the COVID-19 vaccine's efficacy, with those not up-to-date expressing greater doubt. Participants were also concerned about vaccine benefits versus risks, safety, and side effects. Distrust in medicine, confusion about public health guidelines, and conspiracy theories were often reported. Younger unvaccinated individuals cited low health risk as reason to remain unvaccinated. Many participants felt that health education, especially through medical professionals, was beneficial. There is great need for more data to make informed decisions given ongoing lack of understanding of the public health benefits of COVID-19 vaccination. Identifying drivers of vaccine uptake, particularly boosters, in communities of color and developing age-appropriate and culturally responsive interventions to increase vaccination rates are of utmost importance.

The driving mechanism of citizens’ protective behaviors for rainstorm flood disasters in China: an empirical study based on the protection motivation theory and protective action decision model

[Background/significance]Rainstorm floods have become a high-impact natural disaster and are expected to become more extreme shortly, seriously threatening human safety. Although the government issues timely and precise rainstorm flood warning information, citizens remain indifferent and engage in maladaptive behavior. Therefore, understanding the relationship between emergency information, psychological cognition, individual characteristics, and protective behavior is crucial for effective risk information communication and evacuation guidance. [Method/process]This study utilizes the protection motivation theory (PMT) and protective action decision model (PADM) to develop a structural equation model (SEM) that evaluates the factors driving both protective and non-protective behaviors of individuals to rainstorm flood disasters. [Result/conclusion]The findings indicate that the disaster experience and emergency information received significantly shape how individuals perceive risks, their ability to manage them, and who should be accountable for the disaster. The findings further indicate that how people view their ability to handle a risk situation (perceived coping ability) and who they think is responsible for the situation (perceived attribution of responsibility) directly influence whether they will take protective behaviors. Based on these results, this study puts forward policy recommendations for emergency information release strategies to enhance citizens' willingness to adopt protective behaviors.

Factors affecting the intention to prepare for flash floods in the Philippines

The Philippines is constantly exposed to natural disasters, especially flooding, which causes immense damage to properties and casualties because of its geographical location. For years, numerous typhoons have passed which caused several flash floods. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate the preparedness intentions of Filipinos for flash floods. This study employed an integrated framework of the extended protection motivation theory and theory of planned behavior to identify determinants influencing the intention for flash flood mitigation in the Philippines. In total, 400 individuals willingly answered the online questionnaire administered using purposive sampling. Through the use of structural equation modeling (SEM), knowledge on flash floods, perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, experience on flash floods, and subjective norm were revealed as indicators of intention to prepare. Moreover, the analysis revealed that attitude and perceived behavioral control did not influence the preparation intentions of Filipinos. Based on the output, it was observed that individuals had experienced destructive flash floods in the past, wherein their houses were destroyed and damaged. People presented traumatized experience and left as vulnerable to flash flood since it is an uncontrollable natural disaster, leading to greater intention as family and friends are also perceived as vulnerable. People acknowledge that flash floods create a substantial threat to human life and livelihood, often resulting in casualties and death. Relating to the implications, this study innovatively developed a mitigation plan and risk matrix. The results of this study can contribute to current research on disaster mitigation in the Philippines and offer significant insights for policymakers since this is currently being developed. In addition, future researchers can utilize and extend the results of this research to assess preparedness intentions for other natural disasters.

Intolerance of uncertainty and internet addiction among college students in China post-pandemic era: the mediating role of future anxiety

Due to the repeated changes in the COVID-19 pandemic, we live in an era of various uncertainties that raise future anxiety and behavioral addiction problems. According to the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), the present study attempted to explore the impact of COVID-19 intolerance of uncertainty (COVID-19 IU) on internet addiction (IA) among college students and the mediating role of future anxiety (FA) by constructing a mediating model. A questionnaire survey was conducted on 679 Chinese college students and PROCESS 3.5 was utilized to test the hypotheses. The results indicated that the COVID-19 IU was significantly positively correlated with IA and FA, and FA was significantly positively correlated with IA. COVID-19 IU had a significant positive predictive effect on IA; FA played a complementary partial mediating role between COVID-19 IU and IA. The results supported the PMT, which not only enriched our understanding of FA under uncertain life circumstances, but also deepened our understanding of the potential mechanisms of the effects of IA. Finally, discussions and suggestions were presented based on the results.

The driving effect of experience: How perceived frequency of floods and feeling of loss of control are linked to household-level adaptation

This study examines how perceived and remembered flood experiences, measured as frequent flood experience (FFE) and loss of control experience (LCE) during the last flood, are related to individual protection motivation. Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) builds the theoretical basis of this study, describing protection motivation as a result of threat and coping appraisals. To evaluate the relationship between flood experience and protective behavior, we applied structural equation modeling using survey data from 2020 conducted in Saxony, Germany (n = 1,884). Four main conclusions can be drawn: first, both applied measures of experience, FFE and LCE, are positively associated with threat appraisal, leading to a positive link to protection motivation. Second, FFE and LCE negatively relate to coping appraisal, culminating in an overall negative relationship with protection motivation. Third, FFE has a stronger direct link to protection motivation, and LCE has a stronger indirect link via threat and coping appraisals. Fourth, the relationship between LCE and threat appraisals decreases over time, while the relationship between FFE and threat appraisals does not diminish. The study underscores the importance of considering individual flood experience to understand protective behavior in the context of increasing flood frequencies. Moreover, including affective measures of experience, such as LCE, can improve our understanding of why some flood-prone people undertake protective measures whereas others do not.

Gendered implications for climate change adaptation among farmers in Madagascar

ABSTRACT Climate change is impacting farmers worldwide; none more so than the millions of smallholder farmers who rely entirely on rain-fed agriculture. Adapting agricultural practices is an important strategy to mitigate climate change’s harmful impacts to food security and livelihoods. Researchers have increasingly sought to understand the factors influencing farmer decision-making on adaptation practices but application of important theories in low-income country contexts is lacking. Therefore, we apply the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) to examine farmer intention to adopt agricultural practices in response to climate change based on a survey of 328 smallholder farmers in rural Madagascar. Using structural equation modeling (SEM) to describe the relationship between social connectedness (e.g., interactions with others about farming-related issues), PMT constructs (threat and coping appraisal), and intention to adapt agricultural practices to climate change, we find that coping appraisal is a stronger predictor of intention to adapt than threat appraisal. Further, SEM results show a significant negative relationship between social connectedness and threat appraisal – farmers with greater social connectedness perceive climate change to be less of a threat. Additionally, as female farmers are significantly less socially connected than male farmers, this study provides further evidence of the gendered vulnerabilities to climate change among smallholders. This research has implications for the design of policies and interventions that consider farmer social networks, critical for reducing threat and building coping capacity, in supporting adaptation to climate change among vulnerable farmer populations.

The impact of Fintech innovations on digital currency adoption: a blockchain-based study in India

Purpose The purpose of this study is to integrate customer value theory (CVT) and protection motivation theory (PMT) to understand the factors that have an impact on customer experience, e-trust and intention to recommend, which influence the adoption behaviour of digital currency users. Design/methodology/approach A purposive sampling technique was used, and data were gathered through an online survey of 414 respondents. The measurement and structural models were tested using partial least squares structural equation modelling to establish linkages between the constructs. Findings Functional, emotional and social values positively impact customer experience. Furthermore, perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, response efficacy and self-efficacy had a positive impact on e-trust. E-trust positively affects customer experience and intention to use the digital currency directly. The study demonstrated that perceived value and protection motivation factors play a significant role in influencing the use of digital currency. Practical implications For managers and policymakers interested in the Indian digital currency market, it is suggested that functional utility and emotional and social benefits can enhance user satisfaction. In an e-trust model, user education to increase risk and protection awareness, effectiveness of responses and self-efficacy are critical to building e-trust. Originality/value Building on CVT and PMT’s usage in the broader financial services domain, this research empirically confirms the significance of perceived value and protection motivation factors while adopting digital currency. It provides an extensive and multifaceted approach to comprehending customer involvement and trust in digital financial services, thus enhancing the theoretical and empirical knowledge of both the fintech and blockchain industries.

Integrated pest management adoption among citrus growers in Iran: an application of the protection motivation theory.

Integrated pest management (IPM) is recognized as a sustainable approach to pest control. However, adoption rates among farmers in Iran have been observed to be low. This study investigates the adoption of IPM practices among citrus farmers in Iran and assesses the applicability of the protection motivation theory (PMT) in explaining farmers' behavior towards IPM. Overall, farmers reported poor levels of IPM use, paying attention only to monitoring practices among the three groups of IPM practices examined (prevention, monitoring, and suppression). The perceived severity of the consequences of chemical pest control (β = 0.389, P < 0.001), the response efficacy of IPM practices (β = 0.254, P < 0.001), and the perceived self-efficacy of using IPM practices (β = 0.199, P < 0.001) positively predicted adoption of IPM practices, while response cost/barriers of IPM practices (β = -0.355, P < 0.001) negatively predicted adoption of IPM practices. The PMT model presents a unique and interesting perspective to understand if and how IPM practices against the threat of pests are motivated. The perceived severity of the consequences of chemical pest control showed the strongest positive effect, whereas the response cost/barriers of IPM practices showed the strongest negative effect on IPM adoption. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.