Nest Protection Research Articles

Juvenile Burrowing Owl Nighttime Space-Use In Southern New Mexico

In some areas, Burrowing Owls (Athene cunicularia) occur in human-altered, urbanized environments. However, their use of these anthropogenic land-cover types during nighttime is not well understood. We studied nocturnal and crepuscular space-use of eight juvenile Burrowing Owls in urban, greenspace, and agriculture dominated landscapes during 2012 and 2013 in Dona Ana County, New Mexico. For each owl, we obtained an average of 22 (range 14–37) nighttime telemetry fixes covering a period of 1–8.5 wk post-fledging. The juvenile Burrowing Owls avoided urban cover types and spent more time in agriculture and greenspace. In agricultural areas, owls used canals, weedy ditches, and associated farm roads, whereas in greenspace owls used city parks, golf courses, and patches of native habitat. Juvenile owls in this study were not observed to move large distances and on average most owls (n = 5) remained within 500 m of their roost burrow, with one owl traveling up to 743 m from its roost site. Conservation efforts for Burrowing Owls within human-altered environments should focus on the protection of nest and roost burrows near important foraging areas.

Phenotypic integration in an extended phenotype: among-individual variation in nest-building traits of the alfalfa leafcutting bee (Megachile rotundata).

Structures such as nests and burrows are an essential component of many organisms' life-cycle and require a complex sequence of behaviours. Because behaviours can vary consistently among individuals and be correlated with one another, we hypothesized that these structures would (1) show evidence of among-individual variation, (2) be organized into distinct functional modules and (3) show evidence of trade-offs among functional modules due to limits on energy budgets. We tested these hypotheses using the alfalfa leafcutting bee, Megachile rotundata, a solitary bee and important crop pollinator. Megachile rotundata constructs complex nests by gathering leaf materials to form a linear series of cells in pre-existing cavities. In this study, we examined variation in the following nest construction traits: reproduction (number of cells per nest and nest length), nest protection (cap length and number of leaves per cap), cell construction (cell size and number of leaves per cell) and cell provisioning (cell mass) from 60 nests. We found a general decline in investment in cell construction and provisioning with each new cell built. In addition, we found evidence for both repeatability and plasticity in cell provisioning with little evidence for trade-offs among traits. Instead, most traits were positively, albeit weakly, correlated (r~0.15), and traits were loosely organized into covarying modules. Our results show that individual differences in nest construction are detectable at a level similar to that of other behavioural traits and that these traits are only weakly integrated. This suggests that nest components are capable of independent evolutionary trajectories.

Survival and dispersal routes of head-started loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) post-hatchlings in the Mediterranean Sea

Several loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) nesting events have been recorded along Spain’s Mediterranean coast, outside its known nesting range, in recent years. In view of the possible expansion of its nesting range and considering the conservation status of this species, management measures like nest protection and head-start programs have been implemented. To study the dispersal behavior and survival of head-started loggerheads, 19 post-hatchlings from three nesting events were satellite tracked after their release in three consecutive years (2015–2017). This paper presents the first study of survival probabilities and dispersal movements of loggerhead post-hatchlings in the Mediterranean basin. Monitored post-hatchlings dispersed over large areas using variable routes, mainly off the continental shelf. Nonetheless, post-hatchlings dispersed to high-productivity warmer areas during the coldest months of monitoring. These areas might be optimum for their survival and development. We observed differences regarding dispersal orientation and routes among individuals, even from the same nest, release date, and location. Our survival models contributed to improving current survival estimates for sea turtle post-hatchlings. We observed a high probability of survival in head-started individuals during the first months after release, usually the most critical period after reintroduction. The data did not support an effect of habitat (neritic or oceanic) in survival, or an effect of the region (Balearic sea or Alboran sea) in survival probability. Differences in survival between nests were observed. These differences might be related to parasitic infections suffered during the head-starting period. This study shows that nest management measures may contribute to the conservation and range expansion of the loggerhead turtle population in the western Mediterranean.

Presence of ghost crabs and piping plover nesting success

ABSTRACTDespite intensive management to protect the federally threatened piping plover (Charadrius melodus), breeding success in North Carolina has consistently been lower than in other Atlantic Coast states. The native ghost crab (Ocypode quadrata) preys on plover eggs and chicks, but the effect of ghost crab predation on plover productivity has not been established. We used daily records of nest survival collected at Cape Hatteras National Seashore, North Carolina, USA from 2008 to 2015 to test a hypothesized negative relationship between the presence of ghost crabs within the 3‐m diameter nest exclosure and the daily nest survival of plovers. We detected ghost crabs or their burrows within the nest exclosure on 63 out of 2,347 nest visits (24 out of 94 nests, 25%). We determined 9 nests (9.6%) were depredated by ghost crabs and 2 nests were abandoned after ghost crab visits. The estimated daily survival rate (DSR) of plover nests decreased with nest age, so to compare the nesting success predicted by our model, we standardized age in the prediction as the age at mid‐incubation. At mid‐incubation (nest age = 19 days), the DSR of a nest found with evidence of ghost crabs was 0.92 (95% CI = 0.74–0.98), compared to DSR of nests without ghost crabs (0.99, 95% CI = 0.97–0.99). We tested other covariates (e.g., clutch size, breeding timing, daily weather conditions); however, the standardized effect size of the presence of ghost crab was more than twice that of all other covariates. Ghost crabs may have a previously under‐recognized effect on plover nest survival when avian and mammalian predation is precluded by nest exclosures. Protection of piping plover nests from ghost crabs may improve piping plover nest success. © 2018 The Wildlife Society.

State uncertainty models and mark‐resight models for understanding non‐breeding site use by Piping Plovers

AbstractConservation of beach‐nesting medium‐distance migrants has focused on breeding areas because protection of nests is more tractable than protection of non‐breeding habitat. As breeding ground management has encountered diminishing returns, interest in understanding threats in non‐breeding areas has increased. However, robust estimates of non‐breeding demographic rates and abundance are generally lacking, hindering the study of limiting factors. Estimating such rates is made more difficult by complex population dynamics at non‐breeding sites. In South Carolina, endangered Piping Plovers Charadrius melodus start arriving in July and some depart prior to December (the autumn‐only population) while others remain through at least March (the wintering population). State uncertainty capture‐mark‐recapture models provide a means for estimating vital rates for such co‐occurring populations. We estimated the proportion of the population entering the study area per survey (entry probability) and proportion remaining per survey (persistence rate) for both populations during autumn, and abundance of the wintering population, at four sites in South Carolina in 2006/7 and 2007/8, taking advantage of birds previously colour‐ringed on the breeding grounds. We made fairly precise estimates of entry and persistence rates with small sample sizes. Cumulative entry probability was ~50% by the end of July and reached 95% for both populations by October. Estimated stopover duration for birds in the autumn‐only population was 35 days in year 1 and 42 days in year 2. We estimated a wintering super‐population size of 71 ± 16 se birds in the first year and 75 ± 16 in the second. If ringing programmes on the breeding grounds continue, standardized resighting surveys in the non‐breeding period and mark‐recapture models can provide robust estimates of entry and persistence rates and abundance. Habitat protection intended to benefit non‐breeding Piping Plovers at our coastal sites should be in effect by late summer, as many birds are resident from July to the end of winter.

How to be a great dad: parental care in a flock of greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus).

In the last years, studies on captive greater flamingos have increased. Research on zoo animals is important to improve the knowledge on these species and to improve their ex-situ and in-situ conservation. The aim of the present study was to investigate the parental behaviour of a captive colony of greater flamingo hosted at Parco Natura Viva, an Italian zoological garden, to improve the knowledge on this species in zoos. In particular, the present study investigated and compared the parental care of females and males in 35 breeding pairs of greater flamingos. For each pair, we collected durations of parental care behaviour of both females and males, recording their position in relation to the nest (near the nest, on the nest, away from the nest) and individual and social behaviours performed. First, both partners were involved in parental care and displayed species-specific behaviours reported in the wild. The main results were that males spent more time than females on the nest (P = 0.010) and near it (P = 0.0001) and were more aggressive toward other flamingos than females, both when sitting on the nest (P = 0.003) and when near the nest (P = 0.0003). Therefore, male flamingos seem to be more involved in incubation duties and nest protection than females. This kind of research is important not only to expand the knowledge on bird species such as flamingos, but also to improve their husbandry and breeding in controlled environment. Indeed, understanding animal behaviour allows us to gain insights into their individual and social needs, addressing potential animal welfare issues.

Incubation increases oxidative imbalance compared to chick rearing in a seabird, the Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus)

It is expected that activities which require a high use of energy could generate higher oxidative stress. In the present study, we have compared two breeding periods (incubation and chick rearing) with different energetic demands in the Magellanic penguin, predicting a higher oxidative unbalance during chick rearing since involves higher demanding activities such as chick feeding and greater nest protection than during incubation. Specifically, we predicted higher oxidative damage and lower antioxidant defences during chick rearing than during incubation. Fieldwork was conducted in a Magellanic penguin colony located in Estancia San Lorenzo (42°05′S, 63°49′W), Peninsula Valdes, Argentina, during the breeding season of 2014–2015. Surprisingly, our results did not support our initial prediction. Incubating adults had their oxidative status unbalanced showing significantly lower antioxidant levels than those rearing chicks. Moreover, oxidative damage did not show any significant variation between both breeding periods. Further, we did not find differences in oxidative status between sexes. Our results suggest that incubation is a highly demanding activity compared to chick rearing in terms of oxidative balance since the lower presence of antioxidants can be explained as they have probably depleted to limit oxidative damage by ROS. Differential foraging effort could explain such results as Magellanic penguins adjust their foraging location to prey availability performing longer foraging trips during incubation than during chick rearing which increases the energy costs and therefore imbalance penguins oxidative status. Our results show the importance of examining physiological markers such as oxidative stress to assess differences during the breeding cycle and how the behaviour at sea could explain such differences in seabirds.

Attraction of Nesting Wading Birds to Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). Testing the ‘Nest Protector’ Hypothesis

Ecological facilitation (mutualism and commensalism) appears to be a strong force shaping biotic communities, and may be more likely in stressful and dynamic environments like wetlands. We examined a specific type of mutualism, ‘protective nesting associations,’ between herons and egrets (Ardeidae) and American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). We predicted that wading birds would be attracted to sites with alligators. A survey of potential nesting sites in the Everglades showed strong nonrandom association, with wading birds never nesting without alligators. At previously unoccupied nesting colony sites, we experimentally manipulated apparent densities of alligators and birds using alligator and bird decoys. Small day-herons (little blue herons (Egretta caerulea), tricolored herons (Egretta tricolor), and snowy egrets (Egretta thula)) were significantly more numerous at sites with both alligator and bird decoys than other treatments. These findings together support the hypothesis that wading birds actively choose predator-protected nesting locations based in part on information from both conspecifics and alligators, and suggest that the mechanism supporting this habitat choice is primarily due to nest protection benefits the alligators inadvertently provide. We propose that this interaction is strong and could be geographically widespread, and suggest that it may be critical to shaping management and conservation of wetland function.

Visible marking of wader nests to avoid damage by farmers does not increase nest predation

SummaryOnly a few studies have assessed the predation risk on artificially marked nests, or have examined ways of marking nests to avoid destruction by machinery. Until now, however, neither type of study has directly addressed this apparent trade-off experimentally. The impact of marking the nests of Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus with thin 2 m-long conspicuous bamboo poles with the top end highlighted with reflective red or orange spray has been tested for three years in two breeding areas of waders in the Czech Republic. A total of 52 pairs of nests on agricultural land, with each pair consisting of one marked nest and one unmarked reference counterpart nest, were monitored for 2004 nest-days until hatching, agricultural operations or failure. The results proved that marking itself does not result in increased nest predation. The nests found in the early incubation stage were under higher threat of depredation, irrespective of the presence of marking. Our results show that it is possible to find a finely-tuned trade-off in nest marking of ground-nesting birds between risk of damage by agricultural machinery and risk of increased nest predation. Our positive experience with Northern Lapwing, and episodically with three other wader species in the Czech Republic, suggests that this direct nest protection could be used effectively for a wider variety of ground-nesting birds.

Agri-evironmental schemes and active nest protection can increase hatching success of a reintroduced farmland bird species

Throughout Europe ground-nesting farmland bird species are rapidly declining and have become a conservation concern. Intensive agriculture and high nest predation rates are major factors causing the decline. Species conservation efforts often focus on habitat enhancement to increase the quantity and quality of available habitat structures (habitat enhancement hypothesis) or active nest protection by fencing and predator control (predation mitigation hypothesis). Within the context of a reintroduction project of grey partridges (Perdix perdix) into two regions of Switzerland, we investigated breeding habitat preferences and hatching success in relation to properties of the habitat surrounding the nest. Then we tested whether predator exclusion by fencing can increase hatching success. The location and hatching success of 121 nests were observed by radio-tracking and available habitats in both regions were mapped. Grey partridges preferred nesting habitats in highly heterogeneous wildflower areas, which had been implemented as biodiversity promoting areas (BPA) and nest fencing significantly increased hatching success. Likewise, increased proportions of wildflower BPAs tended to enhance hatching success, which is probably related to higher availability of cover in these structures. Increasing proportions of cover vegetation around the nest had a positive effect on hatching success. Increasing the quality of rural habitats by providing heterogeneous habitat structures as well as reducing predator access to nests by fencing can increase hatching success in grey partridges and is likely to benefit other ground-nesting birds as well. In fact, high amounts of cover vegetation around the nest can compensate for nest fencing by hampering nest depredation.

Examination of Parental Investment in Nest Defence in a Tropical Songbird, the Pied Bush Chat (Saxicola Caprata)

Most animals that demonstrate parental care are also engaged in such behaviour that increases their offspring chance of survival when confronted by a predator. The present study is equipped with a detailed account of the parental investment in nest defence behaviour of a tropic zone (Haridwar, Himalayan foothills, India) inhabiting species, the Pied Bush Chat ( Saxicola caprata) (PBC). During simulated nest defence treatments, we recorded two distinct types of calls which were used during the display of parental aggression by PBCs, threat calls and alarm calls. Significant differences were noted for the usage of the threat calls over the alarm calls during nest defence. For the most part males were found to be more aggressive than females (on the basis of their call rates) during the simulated attacks of the decoy predator. Results also indicated that parental aggression was more inclined towards nestlings than that of the eggs. The results were consistent with the hypothesis that the nest protection intensity increases with the progression of the nesting cycle.

Distraction display of the southernmost subspecies of the Golden-crowned Warbler Basileuterus culicivorus azarae (Aves: Parulidae) and a need for more detailed documentation of paratreptic behaviours

Distraction displays or paratreptic behaviours are nest protection behaviours designed to lead predators away from an active nest. The reason for the widespread presence of terrestrial distraction displays in the largely arboreal Parulidae has been the subject of much debate, and a terrestrial or semi-terrestrial ancestor has been postulated to explain it. Recent phylogenetic analyses provide some support for this theory, but distraction displays in the Parulidae remain poorly documented and are often inaccurately and abruptly dismissed with misapplied terms such as “injury-feigning”. An observation of distraction display in the southern azarae subspecies of the widespread Neotropical species, Golden-crowned Warbler Basileuterus culicivorus, showed that such behaviours are far more complex and multi-faceted than currently understood. The distraction display of this subspecies exhibits elements of injury-feigning, chick simulation, advertising and, perhaps, eccentric deportment. Given the possible ancestral origins of such behaviours, it is suggested that the careful documentation and description of such behaviours in Parulidae is warranted and that they may potentially assist in shedding light on the evolutionary history of the family.

Effectiveness of direct payments to increase reproductive success of sandbar-nesting river birds in Cambodia

SummaryDirect payments to communities or individuals have gained traction as a tool for species conservation; however, few studies have evaluated their effectiveness. From 2010 to 2014, we monitored nests and implemented a direct payment nest protection programme for six sandbar-nesting bird species on the Mekong River, Cambodia, and tested if nest protection improved reproductive success. Nests were guarded by community members; additionally, exclosures were used to protect nests of River Tern Sterna aurantia, the species of highest conservation concern. We investigated factors affecting nest and chick survival, and probability of nest failure due to egg harvest or predation. Nesting later in the season generally resulted in lower nest and chick survival. Nest protection improved survival rates of River Tern nests and chicks, and Small Pratincole Glareola lactea nests. River Tern nest success was 60% for exclosed (and guarded) nests, 29% for guarded (but unexclosed) nests, and 5% for unprotected nests. River Tern fledging success was 82% for exclosed chicks, 40% for chicks that were guarded only, and 2% for unprotected chicks. Small Pratincole nest success was 21% for guarded and 6% for unguarded nests. Egg harvest by humans was lower among protected nests and declined during the study. Nest predation by animals increased during the study despite nest guarding; however, predator exclosures effectively protected nests and chicks. Additional predator control measures could further improve reproductive success of sandbar-nesting birds. Overall, nest protection involving direct payments was highly effective, but required diligent use of nest exclosures, frequent monitoring, and strong community relationships.

Hatching Success and Predation of Bog Turtle (Glyptemys muhlenbergii) Eggs in New Jersey and Pennsylvania

Abstract Nest-site selection by most turtles affects the survival of females and their offspring. Although bog turtles (Glyptemys muhlenbergii) do not typically leave their wetlands for nesting, nest-site selection can impact hatching success and hatchling survival. Between 1974 and 2012, we monitored the fates of 258 bog turtle eggs incubated in the field and 91 eggs incubated under laboratory conditions from 11 different bogs, fens, or wetland complexes in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Laboratory-incubated eggs exhibited the greatest hatching success (81%), but we did not detect a significant difference in hatching success between nests protected with predator excluder cages (43%) and unprotected nests (33%). However, we found significantly lower predation rates in protected nests, suggesting that while predator excluder cages successfully reduced predation, other environmental factors persisted to reduce egg survival in the field. Natural hatching success was potentially reduced by poor weather conditio...

How Do Infanticidal Male Bank Voles (Myodes glareolus) Find the Nest with Pups?

AbstractInfanticide, the killing of conspecific young, occurs in most mammal species, like in our study species, the bank vole (Myodes glareolus). Infanticide by adult males is regarded as a strong factor affecting recruitment of young into population. It is considered as an adaptive behaviour, which may increase male fitness via resource gain or an increased access to mates. When an intruder is approaching the nest, the mother should not be present, as her nest guarding is very aggressive and successful. Pups use ultrasonic vocalisation to call their mother when mother leaves nest for foraging but it is not know which cues do infanticidal males use to find the nest with vulnerable pups to commit infanticide? We studied whether the pups' sounds or the olfactory cues of the nest guide the males of known infanticidal behavioural trait towards the nest with vulnerable pups. Four nest boxes in a large indoor arena offered different nesting cues: nest odour, pup vocalisation, both odour and sound or control with no cue. The result showed that infanticidal males were more active in their searching behaviour than non‐infanticidal males and seemed to target the nest providing only acoustic cues. Four of the males, all infanticidal, intruded the nest box. Infanticidal males seem to actively search for nests with vulnerable pups by eavesdropping pup begging calls for absent mother. However, under natural conditions, mother presence and aggressive nest protection may be an effective counter strategy against strange male infanticide. When trapping study voles from the wild, we monitored occurrence of male infanticide across the breeding season from early to late summer. Proportion of infanticidal males was between 25 and 29% of all males tested along the breeding season. Our results suggest that male infanticide seems to cause a stable threat for pup mortality in increasing breeding season density.

Successful Breeding of a Flightless Female Eagle Owl Bubo Bubo

A flightless female Eagle Owl Bubo bubo has survived for one year with food provided by its partner. The pair bred successfully and raised one owlet in 2015. The favourable combination of characteristics on the rocky slope nest site occupied by the pair provided the female different escape routes from potential enemies, natural protection of the nest and access to water during the time of laying, incubation period and hot summer weather. Voles ( Microtus sp.) were the most numerous prey (55.8% by number, 15.3% by biomass) because of their population spike during the period with a flightless female in the pair. Rats ( Rattus sp.; 16.2% by number, 31.2% by biomass), a key prey resource, also increased to a level several times greater than in previous years. The significant differences in diet during 2015 did not appear to cause any obvious changes in Eagle Owl breeding characteristics at the site. The increasing prey on voles and rats created the narrowest food niche and reduced food stress according to the rather lower value of superpredation (3.6% by number, 9.9% by biomass).

Stage-dependent survival in relation to timing of fledging in a migratory passerine, the Northern Wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe)

A better understanding of factors affecting population change is needed to explain declines of long-distance migrants. As juvenile survival is generally an important determinant of population dynamics, assessing whether juvenile survival is primarily affected either during the post-fledging stage on the natal site or during the migration and winter stages (migration-winter) is important for developing conservation strategies. Here, we assess variation in stage-dependent survival of juvenile Northern Wheatears (Oenanthe oenanthe), a threatened passerine in northwestern Europe. We estimate apparent survival in a Dutch coastal breeding population based on frequent resightings during the whole breeding season. We show that post-fledging survival on the natal grounds was not clearly different from survival during migration-winter and that late fledging reduces survival during both post-fledging and migration-winter. It is unknown which factors are causal to lower survival of late-fledged juveniles and this hampers effective conservation. Meanwhile, conservation measures focusing on nest protection should increase average juvenile survival in the remaining small populations in the short term because the number of successfully fledged early juveniles should increase.

From a conservation trap to a conservation solution: lessons from an intensively managed Montagu's harrier population

AbstractMany threatened species in human‐dominated systems are managed through conservation programs. Such programs are sometimes designed based on intuition or short‐term results rather than assessing their long‐term biological and economic sustainability. The current conservation program for Montagu's harriers Circus pygargus, a ground‐nesting bird of prey, in Lleida (Catalonia, NE Spain) aims to protect nests located in farmlands by promoting crop harvest delay around the nest and compensating farmers for their economic loss. This program has been flagged as a ‘conservation trap’ as its costs have been increasing over time, possibly compromising the long‐term sustainability of the program and associated consequences to the local harrier population. In the present work, population viability analyses (PVA) were used to find a conservation management scenario that decreases the risk of the conservation trap, or at least minimizes the medium‐term expenditure on conservation. PVA simulations suggest that the current nest protection program is financially unsustainable at the medium‐term. Cost‐effectiveness analyses suggest that it would be impossible to fully avoid the conservation trap if the conservation goal is to maintain Lleida's current population size. Alternative management scenarios that minimize the medium‐term expenditure of scarce conservation funds are presented. The results suggest that selecting a conservation program based only on short‐term biological or cost‐effective targets might not be the most appropriate, and demonstrate the relevance of having clear medium‐term conservation targets.

Presence of Breeding Birds Improves Body Condition for a Crocodilian Nest Protector.

Ecological associations where one species enhances habitat for another nearby species (facilitations) shape fundamental community dynamics and can promote niche expansion, thereby influencing how and where species persist and coexist. For the many breeding birds facing high nest-predation pressure, enemy-free space can be gained by nesting near more formidable animals for physical protection. While the benefits to protected species seem well documented, very few studies have explored whether and how protector species are affected by nest protection associations. Long-legged wading birds (Pelecaniformes and Ciconiiformes) actively choose nesting sites above resident American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), apparently to take advantage of the protection from mammalian nest predators that alligator presence offers. Previous research has shown that wading bird nesting colonies could provide substantial food for alligators in the form of dropped chicks. We compared alligator body condition in similar habitat with and without wading bird nesting colonies present. Alligator morphometric body condition indices were significantly higher in colony than in non-colony locations, an effect that was statistically independent of a range of environmental variables. Since colonially nesting birds and crocodilians co-occur in many tropical and subtropical wetlands, our results highlight a potentially widespread keystone process between two ecologically important species-groups. These findings suggest the interaction is highly beneficial for both groups of actors, and illustrate how selective pressures may have acted to form and reinforce a strongly positive ecological interaction.

OBSERVACIONES SOBRE LA ANIDACION DE TORTUGAS MARINAS EN LOS ROQUES (VENEZUELA) Y EVALUACION DE MEDIDAS PARA SU PROTECCION

The nesting beaches and seasons of three species of marine turtles Chelonia mydas, Caretta caretta y Eretmochelys imbricata at Los Roques (Venezuela) were studied. E. imbricata was the most common, while C. mydas and C. caretta were rare. The data about the position of the nest on the beach, clutch size and hatching rate were examined. Five methods for the protection of nests against egg collectors were used camouflage, incubation in boxes from three different development times, and moving the eggs to a protected beach. The hatching success and mortality causes in each method are evaluated, finding that it is possible to move the eggs after 35 days of incubation with good hatching rates. The possibilities of these methods for turtle conservation programs at Los Roques and the Caribbean in general are discused.