Landscape Protection Research Articles

Identification of important terraced visual landscapes based on a sensitivity-subjectivity preference matrix for agricultural cultural heritage in the southwestern china

Landscapes illustrating agricultural cultural heritage can serve as an important attraction to encourage tourism in support of rural revitalization in mountainous areas. These landscapes can aid in clarifying the regional scale of agricultural areas and identifying the visual landscape resources that play an important role in promoting the rational and sustainable use and development of resources in mountainous landscapes. Taking the terraced agricultural landscape with cultural resources in the southwestern mountainous region of China as the research object, a landscape visual sensitivity analysis was conducted on this region. This was done using GIS spatial analysis based on the data of relative slope, relative distance, and occurrence probability in the region and scenic beauty evaluation based on 176 questionnaires. Based on the importance-performance analysis, a sensitivity-subjectivity preference matrix of the visual landscape of having terraced agricultural and heritage resources in the southwestern mountainous area of China was constructed. Next, the visual landscape in the study area was classified into four types of areas, and corresponding landscape protection and planning suggestions were proposed. The study shows that the villages of Liushe, Qinglong, and Jiupang are in the “critical visual landscape area” and are evaluated as having high sensitivity-high preference evaluation; the villages of Baidu and Bailu are in the “natural development area” with low sensitivity-high preference. Furthermore, Zhanliu village is in the “priority improvement area” with high sensitivity-low preference; lastly, the villages of Jiulong, Liuzhai, and Liufu are in the “second priority improvement zone” with low sensitivity and preference. The findings of this study can provide a reference for determining the timing and direction of landscape development of agricultural heritage in the terraced mountainous areas of southwestern China; the landscape visual evaluation method employed here has implications for the identification of key areas in other mountainous landscapes.

Protection Of Intact Forest Landscapes In Russia: Role Of Government, MarketDriven And Buyers’ Restrictive Approaches

Leading environmental organizations recognize intact forest landscapes as priority areas for conserving forests. A quarter of global intact forest landscapes (IFL), are found in Russia, and since 2000, the country has lost over 7,5% (or 21 million ha) of its IFLs due to logging, forest fires and road construction. With the projected logging rates Russia’s IFLs will completely disappear in 150 years, and IFLs that are “rich” in timber will do so in 50 years. Protection of IFLs is the serious challenge, not only due to associated biodiversity loss, but also due to outstanding carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation role of IFLs. The objective of this research is to define the key drivers and factors and to examine how government and market-driven approaches contribute to the preservation of intact forest landscapes in Russia. A further objective is to assess the merits of consumers restriction measures, such as phase-out of IFL product purchases, as proposed by some environmentalists. According to our research, voluntary forest certification (market-driven approach) was the main tool for IFL protection in Russia until recently. A market-driven FSC voluntary certification scheme includes moratoria agreements to preserve almost 3 million ha of IFLs. Additionally, between 2010 and 2020 more than 770 thousand ha of IFLs were established in two national parks and three nature reserves in North-West Russia with the primary goal to protect IFLs, mainly in former FSC “no logging” zones. Market-driven approach is currently the main tool used to protect IFLs in Russia.

Legal landscape of trade secret protection: Ukrainian-European aspect

The article is devoted to commercial secrets as a special object of intellectual property. The authors of the article conducted a comprehensive analysis of the current legal framework and problems related to the protection of trade secrets, focusing on the complexities associated with the protection of trade secrets in various jurisdictions, including Germany, France, United Kingdom and Ukraine.The authors found that as technology advances at an unprecedented rate, it becomes increasingly difficult for companies to protect their intellectual property from being stolen or used by competitors or employees seeking personal gain. Thus, there is an urgent need to strengthen laws and mechanisms to ensure effective protection of trade secrets. The authors make this point in their paper, noting how weak regulation can stifle innovation by preventing companies from investing in research and development out of fear that their ideas could be stolen.The analyzed regulatory framework and case law provided an understanding of the legal landscape related to the protection of trade secrets. The research process included a critical evaluation of each law to ensure its relevance and effectiveness.The article also sheds light on the challenges countries face in implementing effective trade secret protection policies. One of them is the lack of awareness among stakeholders about the importance of protecting intellectual property rights and the limited resources allocated to ensure compliance. It is possible to solve this problem by strengthening the current laws related to the protection of commercial secrets, or adopting new, more effective ones.In addition, there is an urgent need for international cooperation between governments to develop strong safeguards against misappropriation of trade secrets.The authors emphasize that the use of alternative dispute resolution methods beyond traditional ones (judicial, administrative) could provide more effective means of resolving conflicts between parties regarding the appropriation, distribution, and use of trade secrets.

Land Cover Change Detection and Analysis of Mts. Palay-Palay Mataas-Na-Gulod Protected Landscape, Philippines using Satellite Imagery

Several studies have already proven the existence of unsustainable human activities or disturbances assumed to cause land cover change on the Mts. Palay-Palay Mataas-Na-Gulod Protected Landscape (MPPMNGPL)in the Philippines. However, there is a dearth of published works on how these disturbances affect the different land cover classes in this protected landscape. This study aimed to help fill such information gap by investigating the extent of land cover changes and potentially disturbed forest areas inside the MPPMNGPL. Using geographic information system and remote sensing, classified maps were produced from Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8 images through supervised classification. The study described the land cover types and land cover changes in the area from 2015 to 2021 and identified potentially disturbed forest areas using the normalized difference moisture index (NDMI). The land cover classes identified in the area included forest, grassland, built-up, barren land and water. From 2015 to 2021, the largest land cover change came from the 510.92 ha of forest area in Ternate that turned into a grassland area as reflected in the NDMI result – an indicator of potential forest disturbance. Change detection showed that from 2015 to 2021, the grassland area had an increase of +14.05%, while the forest area had a decrease of -13.8%. Results showed that forest is still the most dominant land cover class in the protected landscape. Further studies and ground validation must be conducted to determine the specific causes of the land cover changes.

PROBLEMATYKA OCHRONY, PLANOWANIA I ZARZĄDZANIA PRZEDPOLAMI EKSPOZYCJI WIELKOPOLSKICH FOLWARKÓW

The landowners' houses together with the manorial and park layout gave a unique character to the landscape of Wielkopolska. They are characterized by high sensitivity in terms of the landscape capacity of the vantage points. This is because not only the loss of the historical building substance or greenery, but also the new buildings erected in their surroundings, disturb the legibility of the relics of the manorial economy. The problem is the point protection of these elementsfore, which will probably be emphasized soon by the results of the landscape audit. The Italian experience in the protection, planning and management of landscapes, the character of which was given by landowners, brings inspiring conclusions.

Richness and Elevation Patterns of a Stonefly (Insecta, Plecoptera) Community of a Southern Appalachian Mountains Watershed, USA

Protected areas are relatively free of human disturbance, are especially common in montane regions, and provide opportunities to study native fauna and flora. Stoneflies are model organisms to assess present and future environmental changes. While stoneflies inhabit cold lakes and a wide size range of lotic systems, diversity is greatest in streams draining mountain landscapes. This study addressed seasonal and elevation patterns of a stonefly fauna inhabiting a protected landscape draining the eastern flank of Mount Mitchell, the highest point of the Appalachian Mountains, USA. In total, 58 species were collected with estimated richness values ranging from 63 to 65. Species determinations were assisted with an integrative molecular approach using the mitochondrial barcode gene. Sampling during spring yielded the most species seasonally. Although certain species were only found at lower or higher sites, several were collected from across a broad range of elevations. Roughly 1/3 (21 = 36%) of the fauna present is known only from the southern Appalachian Highlands region, including one species described as new during this study. The assemblage reported here, however, did not closely align with other Appalachian fauna. Overall, well-structured faunal research continues to be important in light of continuing habitat modifications and climate change.

Landscape conservation in the natural-rural interface. A social-ecological approach in Natural Parks of Andalusia (Spain)

ContextMultifunctional rural landscapes are social-ecological systems that represent a link between nature and culture. They are characterized by the conservation and protection of ecological processes, natural resources and biocultural diversity. The conservation of these landscapes is mainly based on the establishment of Protected Natural Areas (PAs) whose regulatory schemes have often promoted their degradation.ObjectivesWe evaluate the effectiveness of the conservation strategies of the Natural Park category in the protection and maintenance of rural cultural landscapes. We analyse at a regional and local scale both the dynamics of land-uses and the socioeconomic structure of the local populations involved, identifying the main social-ecological indicators of change in the protected landscape.MethodsWe apply a methodological approach, based on geoprocessing tools and multivariate analysis, to examine social-ecological changes in rural cultural landscapes after the establishment of a network of PAs. The designed method allows us to infer the ecological and socioeconomic resilience of protected landscapes.ResultsConservation efforts have tended to underestimate rural landscapes in favour of natural ones, mainly forest systems, and have not been able to prevent the processes of abandonment and degradation of protected landscapes. A simplification of the land-use systems dependent on traditional farming practices is observed. This implies the loss of both the multifunctionality of rural landscapes and their resilience to environmental changes. The key socioeconomic indicators identified highlight the deterioration of the rurality of protected landscapes.ConclusionsOur social-ecological approach is a useful tool to evaluate the effectiveness of PAs. Protection of landscape is related to the decline of traditional agricultural systems and rewilding through land abandonment. Culturalness is necessary to promote the management and conservation of rural landscapes from a holistic perspective.

Co-management for sustainable development and conservation in Sanjiangyuan National Park and the surrounding Tibetan nomadic pastoralist areas

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau plays an essential role in national to regional ecological security, biodiversity conservation, and sustaining livelihood. An array of natural resource management, environmental conservation, and ecological restoration projects have been trialed and implemented in recent years in the vast Sanjiangyuan region of the central Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, aiming especially to ensure socio-ecologically appropriate and sustainable development of animal husbandry in the alpine grasslands. Novel approaches in China have included the introduction of more collaborative approaches in protected area management and the development and formal establishment of a new multi-purpose national park system. Many milestones have been achieved. However, such developments are driven largely by national and global goals and very little has been heard to date directly from the people most affected: those residing within the protected landscapes, i.e. the community stakeholders themselves. This empirical, perceptions-based study aims to partially fill this gap, drawing on the results of focus group discussions with community representatives supplemented by key informant interviews and a targeted review of the literature, to provide synthesized feedback and priority recommendations for improving “community co-management” collaborations for the joint benefit of Tibetan herders and protected areas. The mixed-method approach employed in this study was based on a conceptual model derived from Elinor Ostrom’s social–ecological systems framework, calibrated to local residents’ self-assessments of their household well-being. Results highlight how the most recent configuration of China’s national park model (i.e., its form and the approaches it utilizes) is generally deemed successful by community stakeholders, albeit with some notable perceived limitations mainly relating to a sense of lack of fairness and inclusiveness in the “one household, one post” co-management mechanism. The paper closes with discussion and recommendations around fundamental issues of equity, empowerment, and gender, finally pointing to the significance and, ultimately, the need to move even beyond co-management per se and to adopt a model of inclusive governance for conservation wherein joint deliberations and decision-making amongst diverse stakeholders are prioritized over the simple implementation of externally developed programs and management plans.

Landscape planning and design and visual evaluation for landscape protection of geological environment

As an important carrier of science education, ecological landscape development and regional ecological civilization construction, the quality of geological landscape resources has a direct impact on its landscape charm, and the protection of landscape resources is directly related to its sustainable development ability and regional ecological civilization construction. To avoid or reduce the negative impact of architecture on the environment, the development of architectural landscape based on the perspective of geology and ecology is the top priority of healthy and sustainable development. In this paper, the visual sensitivity of the landscape was assessed by GIS (Geographic Information System, GIS) software technology, by calculating and analyzing the relative slope of the terrain, and visualizing the results through visual sensitivity classification. Based on summarizing and analyzing the previous research results, this paper expounds the geological landscape system and resource system, and introduces the architectural landscape features of environmental landscape protection. Combined with the geological environment planning architectural landscape, the concept of architectural planning and landscape design is integrated, the architectural landscape based on geological environment protection is constructed, and the spatial organization and layout of buildings in the environmental landscape is planned. Finally, landscape visual sensitivity was evaluated based on GIS. The research results show that the architectural landscape and geological environment protected by geological environment landscape can be organically combined, and the landscape has strong visual attraction. The research results of this paper solve the conflict between architecture and geological ecology and provide scientific basis for environmental landscape protection of geological ecology. The composite score of visual sensitivity was obtained by GIS calculation. The most visually sensitive place ranked 25th, while the most visually sensitive place ranked 13th.

Current and potential landscape functions of areas with the remnants of World War II bombing in the Koźle Basin, southern Poland

Abstract Wars bring civilisation and environmental disasters. In the forests and wetlands of the Koźle Basin (southern Poland), clusters of bomb craters remain, which are associated with the air campaign conducted by the USAAF to disable the Third Reich’s fuel facilities. They are among the most spectacular in Europe today. There are nearly 6,000 large bomb craters with a diameter of 7-15 meters and smaller ones from the fall of unexploded ordnance. These areas, with their characteristic scarred relief, currently pose difficulties in terms of economic use. The depressions left after the bombs fell, naturally became small sedimentation basins and niches that were taken over by nature. Landscape and nature mapping of the surveyed areas, altered by the bombing, in conjunction with historical data, suggest that they require protection in the form of two landscape-nature protected complexes (a form of landscape protection in Poland). They can serve as environmental and historical education zones, wildlife sanctuaries, as well as areas for the introduction and reintroduction of species. This is important in a region where hundreds of years of agricultural dominance, as well as decades of intensive industrial development and urban settlement, have caused major changes in the natural environment and degradation of its structures. Similar historical sites, trails and cultural parks dedicated to the war campaigns have been introduced in different European countries.

Metoda oceny wartości i kształtowania krajobrazu oraz jej zastosowanie dla wybranych małych miast województwa pomorskiego objętych obszarami chronionego krajobrazu

The aim of the research was to delimit landscapes, identify their features, analyse their frequency and assess their value, as well as to provide some recommendations on their development and protection. The research area covers four small towns in the Province of Pomerania (Człuchów, Gniew, Prabuty and Dzierzgoń), where protected landscape areas have been established. A wide range of numerical data was used, especially on land cover and relief, as well as on cultural assets. Initially, what was applied was the methodology proposed for performing a landscape audit of the provinces. However, it was significantly modified during the course of the study. Use was made of two approaches to landscape delimitation: one based on land cover and a comprehensive one, allowing for a type of relief, a degree of anthropisation and the texture of a landscape. The first approach made it possible to assess the degree of landscape anthropisation, and the second one enabled the evaluation of the landscape when the criterion of the value of landscape exposure elements was added. The degrees of anthropisation and landscape value vary in the investigated cities, with greater differences in the parts covered by protected landscape areas than in those located in their surroundings. There are also significant differences in the scope and extent of proposed conservation measures. The research – in addition to modifying the previously proposed method – as also found that some of the protected areas have landscapes of lower value than their neighbourhoods, so it can also support planning changes in the existing boundaries or creating new protected areas.

Występowanie, rozwój i podstawowe cechy strukturalne zespołów przyrodniczo-krajobrazowych małych miast Polski

The landscape-nature complex is one of the few forms of protecting landscape visual assets and the only one created by local governments, which may contribute to the preservation of the aesthetics of small towns. The scope of its application has not been recognised so far. The aim of the research was to evaluate the use of landscape-nature complexes in the protection of landscapes of small towns in Poland. The studies embraced the dynamics of the application of this instrument in the last 30 years, its spatial distribution and representativeness in relation to the landscape zones of Poland, the share and location in the urban space, protection motives, as well as structural features. The results show that complexes in the protection of small town landscapes in Poland are used to a small extent, not exceeding a few percent of the cities. There has not been much interest in using this instrument, particularly in the last 10 years. The occurrence of complexes in areas of high landscape values, especially in mountain, foothill, lake and coastal areas, is insufficient and not representative. The area shares are very diverse, but in most cases, they do not exceed a few percent. Complexes are located mainly on the outskirts of towns, less often in the center. The dominant protective motive is the protection of nature, while parks constitute mainly cultural and historical assets. In a small proportion of the complexes, aesthetic and visual values ​​are explicitly indicated as the purpose of protection. The differences in the landform of the complexes are small, as opposed to the cover forms. It is necessary to improve the legal basis for the protection of the existing complexes and to develop unified methods and procedures for their identification, creation and protection.

A visibility-based approach to manage the vertical urban development and maintain visual sustainability of urban mountain landscapes: A case of Mufu Mountain in Nanjing, China

China has experienced a continuous population increase in urban areas over the last few decades with limited land for construction, which has prompted upward growth in the urban environment. Rapid urbanization has encroached on mountain landscapes and deteriorated the visual landscape in different parts of China. This study aims to investigate and analyze the proper balance between visual landscape protection of urban mountains and vertical urban development using a visibility-based method. An interactive and quantitative method was developed in this research using multiple digital 2D and 3D platforms based on the specification of prohibited spaces for constructive expansion in building height control. A metropolitan area near Mufu Mountain in Nanjing, China, was selected as a case study to implement the proposed method and simulate multiple vertical urban development scenarios. According to the comparison of different scenarios, there is a better building height layout to simultaneously satisfy the requirement of sustaining the Mufu mountain’s visibility and the construction capacity proposed by the documented plan. Two polynomial models were generated to quantitatively investigate the relationship between the protection of mountain landscapes and vertical urban development and served as a reference basis for urban planners to formulate the construction volume control strategy around Mufu Mountain. The proposed method in this study can help planners and urban managers to seek an appropriate approach to control building heights and achieve visual sustainability.

Residents’ interest in landscape value trade related to wind energy: application of the attitude–behavior framework to willingness to pay

ABSTRACT Reducing the undesirable outcomes of wind power (WP) in the vicinity of homes with forest management practices can increase the acceptance of WP. If forest owners would avoid clear felling and use light forest management close to homes towards wind turbines, residents might be interested in paying for such a ‘landscape shield’ in the payment for ecosystem services (PES) context. The majority (83.7%) of the survey sample from Finland were interested in participating in the PES mechanism. On average, they were willing to pay €80.9 per hectare annually to participate in landscape value trade arranging a landscape shield against wind turbines. We applied the attitude–behavior framework to understand the factors and structures underlying residents’ willingness to pay (WTP). The analysis emphasized the importance of intentions, attitudes, and subjective norms over socio-demographic variables in explaining WTP. WTP and the intention to contribute to the cost of the landscape shield were determined by the intention to discuss landscape protection with forest owners and further by the attitudes towards the landscape shield and the interest of neighbors it. This result strongly emphasizes the importance of communication, both with the providers and other consumers of the service.

A Framework for a User-Perception-Based Approach to Integrate Landscape Protection in Soft Mobility Planning

The relationship with bike infrastructure is missing in the current examination of user perception, which places a great deal of emphasis on visual aesthetic quality or surveys. Italy is experiencing the great development of cycling infrastructures, and the related plans, in line with sustainability objectives, have the task of examining users in various aspects. The purpose of this study is to examine users’ criteria based on perceptions of the landscape in the presence of cycling infrastructures and to analyze the current infrastructures and understand their alignment with sustainable plans. One of the multiple-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) methods based on fuzzy comprehensive evaluation (FCE) was utilized, and it entails identifying the factors that constitute an index and assessing the priority of these factors in relation to other components. The findings demonstrate that the primary variables are distinct aspects of the landscape that are objective. We discovered that these components perform better for urban than metropolitan sectors in this study, as we divided the scenarios into metropolitan and general (urban, suburban, and coastal urban) scenarios.

Application of the CZ-Globio Model in Beskydy Protected Landscape Area

Abstract Spatially oriented simulation models have not yet been applied to the territory of Beskydy Protected Landscape Area (PLA) to assess the state of biodiversity at a local scale. The CZ-GLOBIO model, which is adapted to the conditions of the Czech Republic, was used as a tool to assess habitat degradation using four selected drivers. The aim of the article is to apply the CZ-GLOBIO model for biodiversity status assessment in Beskydy PLA at the biotope level using detailed habitat data. The result of the application of the model is the evaluation of the state of biodiversity and the risk of its degradation using the Mean Species Abundance (MSA) index. Values are obtained for each segment as well as the average value for the entire territory. The results of biodiversity modelling are available by five maps and five tables with output Mean Species Abundance (MSA) values. Understanding the spatial distribution of the resulting MSA values contributes to the landscape-level habitat assessment of Beskydy PLA. This can serve as a basis for further policy decisions in the environmental field.

Inventory and abundance of non-volant mammals and birds in the unprotected regions of the Mount Apo Range, Philippines

Wildlife, such as non-volant mammals and birds, play a vital role in the maintenance of ecosystem health. They are considered ecological engineers that influence forest vegetation. However, due to deforestation, habitat loss, and human persecution, its population status has declined over the years. This study aimed to conduct a species inventory and assess the relative abundance of non-volant mammals and birds in the unprotected regions of the Mt. Apo Range, Philippines, through camera trapping methods. Furthermore, the anthropogenic threats observed in the study areas were also documented. A total of 1,106 camera trap days were carried out in 2016 and another 500 days in 2020. Based on 260 independent sequences for both the 2016 and 2020 surveys, 12 species were identified, consisting of eight non-volant mammals and four birds. Among the identified species are the Endangered Philippine Brown Deer Rusa marianna & Philippine Long-tailed Macaque Macaca fascicularis philippensis and the Vulnerable Giant Scops-owl Otus gurneyi & the Philippine Warty Pig Sus philippensis. Video evidence of the Philippine Warty Pig Sus philippensis performing an important ecological role as an ecological engineer in the Philippine tropical forests were also captured for the first time. Another 61 independent sequences of unidentified rodents were detected in the camera traps, requiring further species monitoring techniques. Conservation must be strengthened beyond the protected landscapes of the Mt. Apo Range through community-based forest governance. This will ensure that the forest vertebrates are protected and conserved from further anthropogenic pressures.

An assessment of short–medium-term interventions using CAESAR-Lisflood in a post-earthquake mountainous area

Abstract. The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake triggered rapid local geomorphic changes, shifting abundant material through exogenic processes and generating vast amounts of loose material. The substantial material movement increased the geohazard (flash floods, landslides and debris flows) risks induced by extreme precipitation in the area. Intervention measures such as check dams, levees and vegetated slopes have been constructed in specific locations to reduce sediment transport and thereby mitigate the impact of ensuing geohazards. This study assessed the short–medium-term effects of interventions, including multiple control measures, in a post-earthquake mountainous region. Taking the Xingping valley as an example, we used CAESAR-Lisflood, a two-dimensional landscape evolution model, to simulate three scenarios, unprotected landscape, present protected landscape and enhanced protected landscape, between 2011 and 2013. We defined two indices to assess the intervention effects of the three scenarios by comparing the geomorphic changes and sediment yields. The results show that the mitigation measures are effective, especially the geotechnical engineering efforts in combination with ecological engineering in the upstream area. The spatial patterns of erosion and deposition change considerably due to the intervention measures. Additionally, the effectiveness of each intervention scenario shows a gradual decline over time, mainly due to the reduction in the reservoir storage capacity. The enhanced scenario performs better than the present one, with a more gradual downward trend of effectiveness. The simulation results evaluated the ability and effectiveness of comprehensive control measures and will support optimal mitigation strategies.

Integrating social values with GPS tracks through Denali National Park and Preserve

This study advanced knowledge of the geospatial relationships between social values elicited during a participatory mapping exercise and on-ground travel patterns understood through Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking of backcountry visitors to a protected area in Alaska. As one of the first studies to combine social values and real-time use of a protected area landscape, we showcase how these combined forms of knowledge can be better understood when compared against biophysical conditions. Contrary to previous research, we observed that perceived social value hotspots, defined by an abundance of point data, did not fully align with use patterns, suggesting that visitors value areas that are not experienced first-hand. Specifically, backcountry travel routes in Denali were less dispersed than areas perceived to be important. Use was mostly concentrated in backcountry units close to the middle sections of the park road while highly valued units coincided with major landmarks, such as the peak of Denali. Travel cost induced by terrain conditions (summarized by elevation, slope and landcover), accessibility (measured by proximity to the park road), and long-view visual resources all contributed to how observed travel behavior deviated from perceived social values. These findings help inform policy and management decisions about outdoor recreation, visitor safety, and visual resource stewardship.

The global landscape of smallpox vaccination history and implications for current and future orthopoxvirus susceptibility: a modelling study.

More than four decades after the eradication of smallpox, the ongoing 2022 monkeypox outbreak and increasing transmission events of other orthopoxviruses necessitate a greater understanding of the global distribution of susceptibility to orthopoxviruses. We aimed to characterise the current global landscape of smallpox vaccination history and orthopoxvirus susceptibility. We characterised the global landscape of smallpox vaccination at a subnational scale by integrating data on current demography with historical smallpox vaccination programme features (coverage and cessation dates) from eradication documents and published literature. We analysed this landscape to identify the factors that were most associated with geographical heterogeneity in current vaccination coverage. We considered how smallpox vaccination history might translate into age-specific susceptibility profiles for orthopoxviruses under different vaccination effectiveness scenarios. We found substantial global spatial heterogeneity in the landscape of smallpox vaccination, with vaccination coverage estimated to range from 7% to 60% within admin-1 regions (ie, regions one administrative level below country) globally, with negligible uncertainty (99·6% of regions have an SD less than 5%). We identified that geographical variation in vaccination coverage was driven mostly by differences in subnational demography. Additionally, we found that susceptibility for orthopoxviruses was highly age specific based on age at cessation and age-specific coverage; however, the age profile was consistent across vaccine effectiveness values. The legacy of smallpox eradication can be observed in the current landscape of smallpox vaccine protection. The strength and longevity of smallpox vaccination campaigns globally, combined with current demographic heterogeneity, have shaped the epidemiological landscape today, revealing substantial geographical variation in orthopoxvirus susceptibility. This study alerts public health decision makers to non-endemic regions that might be at greatest risk in the case of widespread and sustained transmission in the 2022 monkeypox outbreak and highlights the importance of demography and fine-scale spatial dynamics in predicting future public health risks from orthopoxviruses. US National Institutes of Health and US National Science Foundation.