Conservation Of Protected Areas Research Articles

Rangelands and crop fallows can supplement but not replace protected grasslands in sustaining Thar Desert's avifauna during the dry season

1. The Indian Thar Desert has lost much of its grasslands over the last few decades, mainly due to land-use change from pastoralism to agriculture. Expanding croplands and intensifying grazing pressures are popularly hypothesized to be the major drivers of biodiversity loss in the region. Our study aims to investigate the effects of contemporary land-use change on bird communities of the Western Thar Desert.2. We surveyed 59 randomly laid line transects in a ~2000 sq.km study area, to quantify parameters of bird community structure in three predominant land-cover types viz. protected grasslands, rangelands, and fallow croplands. Fieldwork for the study was conducted in the dry season (winter and summer) between December 2018 and April 2019.3. During winter, overall bird species richness and abundance was highest in protected grasslands followed by fallow croplands and rangelands. Protected grasslands also had a higher abundance of diet and habitat specialists. Compared to protected grasslands, density was lower in fallow croplands and rangelands for 35% and 10% of species, respectively. A majority of the negatively affected species were insectivorous grassland specialists.4. Contrary to the pattern in winter, overall bird species richness, abundance, composition, and guild structure in summer was similar across the three land-use types. Only one of the 17 analysed species had significantly lower density in modified land-use types.5. Overall, protected grasslands were the best habitat for birds and specifically important for diet and habitat specialists, more so during the winter. Rangelands and fallow croplands sustained most generalists at comparable densities but had severe negative impacts on specialist species.6. Synthesis and application: Our results point out that low-intensity agro-pastoral land-uses can supplement, but not replace, protected areas in conservation of Thar Desert's avifaunal diversity. This is in consonance with the idea of managing dryland habitats as agro-grassland mosaics with embedded protected areas, in order to reconcile human needs and biodiversity conservation at a landscape scale.

Assessing the effectiveness of global protected areas based on the difference in differences model

Given the important role of protected areas (PAs) in biological conservation and the huge investment required to establish and manage them, it is essential to accurately assess the effectiveness of PAs. Previous studies typically used the difference between the PA and a non-protected area to measure the effectiveness and presented many space constraints to enhance the comparability between treatment and control groups. In contrast, however, researchers have given less consideration to time constraints, and there is still no consensus on the choice of period for assessing the effectiveness. Here, we explored this issue and assessed the effectiveness of 2,975 PAs worldwide using the difference in differences (DID) model. We found that 56.2% of PAs were effective in maintaining plant productivity, and PAs in forests were more effective than those in non-forests. However, the effectiveness of PAs in improving ecological stability was limited. The stability rose only in the regions where PAs could effectively maintain plant productivity (e.g., needleleaf forest, woodland or Central Europe). Further, an event-study analysis showed that global PAs had been playing a positive and persistent role in maintaining plant productivity. In addition to providing these new assessment results, we compared the assessment results derived from different methods and confirmed that the impact of not using the DID model was greater than that of not using the propensity score matching (PSM) method. We therefore recommend the use of the DID model in future effectiveness assessments.

Austral Yungas under future climate and land-use changes scenarios: the importance of protected areas for long-term amphibian conservation

Austral Yungas under future climate and land-use changes scenarios: the importance of protected areas for long-term amphibian conservation

Advances in conservation biogeography: towards protected area effectiveness under anthropogenic threats

This study endorses the main findings of a PhD thesis (Hoffmann 2020) and the manuscripts included intend to advance the success of protected areas in biodiversity conservation mediated through effective and efficient protected area management. The manuscripts provide missing scientific evaluations that modern conservation planning over large geographical extents requires: the comprehensive quantification of species diversity within and between protected areas; the development and application of efficient and effective in-situ monitoring and remote sensing of species diversity; and the assessment of anthropogenic climate change threats to protected areas. Moreover, the manuscripts aim at spreading conservation-minded data and knowledge by means of publishing open-access papers, open-source software and open data. This thesis synopsis is to stimulate a growing scientific and public debate on the effectiveness of protected areas and nature conservation under anthropogenic threats, which is necessary to stop nature’s decline and thus guarantee a sustainable future for the welfare of generations to come.

Disturbance‐specific behavioral responses of giant otters exposed to ecotourism and extractive activities

AbstractHuman activities increasingly result in disturbance of wild animal populations. Behavioral responses vary according to the type, duration, frequency and intensity of disturbance. Exposure to disturbance, for example, arising from ecotourism, may promote tolerance of humans and drive a decrease in vigilance and avoidance behaviors, whereas disturbance resulting from extractive activities is typically more intense and is likely to be perceived as a threat. To understand how animals cope with land transformation and human presence, it is imperative to study their responses under different disturbance regimes. We performed behavioral sampling of groups of the giant otter, a charismatic top carnivore, exposed to ecotourism, extractive activities (mining and fishing) and control sites without disturbance to compare their responses. Foraging efficiency was impacted by fish abundance and thus was reduced in mined and fished areas. Giant otters in lakes with managed ecotourism did not show avoidance of research vessels and demonstrated reduced rates of defensive behavior compared to control lakes. Groups from lakes with fishing and gold mining showed increased avoidance, suggesting that these types of disturbance may involve more direct conflict. Our findings suggest that noninvasive disturbance such as ecotourism may promote giant otter tolerance to the presence of humans, whereas extractive activities may be perceived as riskier. Current protected area conservation strategies of strict ecotourism regulation and the maintenance of no‐access oxbow lakes may ensure the maintenance of behavioral flexibility in giant otter populations. However, resource depletion and more intense human‐giant otter interactions in disturbed areas may not be sustainable. Further studies are necessary to determine whether distinct disturbance regimes drive longer‐term demographic effects.

Notes on the Hyperossified Pumpkin Toadlets of the Genus Brachycephalus (Anura: Brachycephalidae) with the Description of a New Species

Four species of pumpkin toadlets are currently recognized by the extreme condition of hyperossification in the skull and vertebral column within the genus Brachycephalus. In addition to their larger body size, relative to other congeneric species, Brachycephalus darkside, Brachycephalus ephippium, Brachycephalus garbeanus, and Brachycephalus margaritatus share remarkable osteological features, such as the large paravertebral plates forming an ornamented dorsal bone shield, visible through the integument. We add to the current knowledge of this group by analyzing its diversity and describing a new hyperossified species from some important Atlantic Forest remnants in southeastern Brazil, including those bordering Sao Paulo, the largest and most populous city in South America. The new species is diagnosed by a combination of morphological, osteological, and bioacoustic characters, with further evidence of mtDNA sequences to confirm its distinction from the other congeners. The parotic and paravertebral bone plates externally bordered with a rough and pale contour can readily distinguish the new species from the other hyperossified species within Brachycephalus. The new species is widely distributed along the Serra do Mar mountain range, including the regionally named Serra de Paranapiacaba, in elevations from 700 to 1000 m above sea level (a.s.l.), in the central coast of the state of Sao Paulo, southeastern Brazil. We discuss valuable morphological characters within this group of species, reinforce the need for further studies, and highlight the relevance of protected areas for biodiversity conservation in metropolitan regions.

Complex Socio-Ecological Systems: Translating Narratives into Future Land Use and Land Cover Scenarios in the Kilombero Catchment, Tanzania

The Kilombero wetland in Tanzania is affected by advancing land use and land cover changes (LULCC), where we observe a conflict between development interests and the necessity of conservation measures to maintain the functionalities of the ecosystem. Thus, assessing patterns of LULCC is crucial to foresee potential future developments and to develop sustainable future management strategies. In this study, we use a multi-method scenario approach to assess the spatial implications and underlying driving forces of potential change by (1) developing a System Dynamics Causal Loop Diagram (CLD) to disentangle the underlying socio-economic and ecologic driving forces, (2) deriving a qualitative business-as-usual (BAU) and a conservation scenario from participatory narratives elaborated during a stakeholder workshop, and (3) quantifying the spatial implications of these scenarios with the Land Change Modeler (LCM). Results indicate that under the BAU assumption only 37% of the natural vegetation is expected to persist until 2030 in the wetland. In contrast, strict enforcement of protected areas (conservation scenario) halts further conversion of the wetland. However, both scenarios pinpoint considerable expansions of cropland in the western highlands with potentially serious impacts on catchment-wide hydrological processes. The produced qualitative and quantitative outputs reveal hotspots of possible future change and starting points for advisable further research and management interventions.

Conservation in the Pluriverse: Anti-capitalist struggle, knowledge from resistance and the ‘repoliticisation of nature’ in the TIPNIS, Bolivia

Latin American indigenous territories (both rural and urban) are experiencing a resurgence of academic interest, partly for their potential to 'repoliticise nature' in response to the 'ruinations' of colonialism and extractive capitalism (de la Cadena and Blaser, 2018; de Sousa Santos, 2014). As these debates on territory develop in social science, I draw from de Sousa Santos’ work on the epistemologies of the south (2018), which explores the knowledges created in resistance, with political ecology, which approaches nature as produced through politics, history and culture, to offer an empirical reading of the relationships between place, knowledge and the ‘repoliticisation of nature’ in the TIPNIS, Bolivia. Specifically, examining how protected area conservation is being rearticulated within agendas for territorial autonomy during a conflict over extractive infrastructure. In doing so, I reveal how conservation has informed the repoliticisation of nature in the TIPNIS, opening up trajectories for recognising and supporting plurality, difference and autonomy as they are permeated and created within dominant political economies and ecologies.

Complexity in balancing conservation and tourism in protected areas: Contemporary issues and beyond

This study highlights ongoing issues in protected area (PA) tourism and presents management suggestions for PAs, given the growing popularity of PA tourism. This study takes a conceptual approach to discuss the ongoing issues within, and the sustainable future of, PAs. The expansion of PAs is a biodiversity conservation strategy. As PAs expand globally to promote conservation, new opportunities for ecotourism development will also evolve, further contributing to the challenge of balancing conservation and tourism. As many PAs operate without management plans, the development of regulations to foster sustainability is necessary, which is even more important now that the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted PA tourism, challenging PAs across the globe. This study provides an overview of PA tourism, discusses ongoing issues, and offers strategies for managerial improvement. Given the substantial growth of PA tourism, the relationship between PAs and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) should be explored further.

STATE CADASTRAL REGISTRATION OF SPECIALLY PROTECTED NATURE CONSERVATION AREAS: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

The Russian Federation's State Policy in the field of land and property relations is aimed at the land resources rational use as the most important component of the country's national wealth. In accordance with the policy papers and special-purpose projects of the international and regional level adopted in the Russian Federation in recent decades, environmental protection as one of the priority areas includes the formation and ensuring the sustainable functioning of specially protected nature conservation areas system of different levels and categories. According to the legislation, boundaries of specially protected nature conservation areas data and their protected zones must be entered in the Unified State Register of Real Estate, which ensures timely informing of concerned parties about exist restrictions in the land use mode. An analytical work being conducted review on the cadastral registration of specially protected nature conservation areas and their protected zones showed the absence or incorrect reflection of relevant information in the real estate cadastre, which is the reason for the environmental regime violation and numerous proceedings.

The Escalating Effects of Wildlife Tourism on Human-Wildlife Conflict.

Simple SummaryCommunities adjacent to protected areas usually face conflict with protected wildlife. Wildlife tourism is regarded as a tool to mitigate such conflict through bringing economic benefits to villagers and then increasing villagers’ tolerance of wildlife. We used qualitative methods to conduct a case study on a macaque tourism attraction in China and find that tourism may escalate rather than mitigate community–wildlife conflict. Provisioning food is a common way to attract wild animals to visit and stay in human activity areas. In the case of macaque tourism, anthropogenic food provision caused rapid population increase and more intra-group aggressive behaviors. More tourist–macaque interactions resulted in macaques becoming habituated to human’s presence. These ecological impacts on macaques led more invasion to the surrounding community and intensified resident–macaque conflict. Meanwhile, low community participation in tourism generated few benefits for residents and did not help alter residents’ hostile attitudes towards the macaques. Local residents gradually retreated from agriculture as the macaques became more intrusive. We propose a holistic model combining social and ecological perspectives to evaluate the role of wildlife tourism in resolving community–wildlife conflict. We suggest that wildlife tourism should minimize human–wildlife intimate interactions and food provision.Human–wildlife conflict is a barrier to achieving sustainable biodiversity conservation and community development in protected areas. Tourism is often regarded as a tool to mitigate such conflict. However, existing studies have mainly adopted a socio-economic perspective to examine the benefits of tourism for communities, neglecting the ecological effects of tourism. This case study of macaque tourism on a peninsula in China illustrates that tourism can escalate rather than mitigate human–wildlife conflict. Fifty-three stakeholders were interviewed and secondary data were collected to understand the development of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) tourism and community–macaque conflict. The results show that food provision and tourist–macaque interactions rapidly increased the macaques’ population, habituation, and aggressive behaviors, which led them to invade the surrounding community more often and exacerbated human–macaque conflict. Meanwhile, low community participation in tourism generated few benefits for residents and did not help alter residents’ hostile attitudes towards the macaques. Local residents gradually retreated from agriculture as the macaques became more intrusive. A holistic approach to evaluating the role of wildlife tourism in resolving community–wildlife conflict is proposed and practical suggestions for alleviating such conflict are given.

Big data analytics of sustainable ecotourism development in Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park

Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park (BTSNP) are designated as the 10 new Bali of Indonesia. As a protected area, BTSNP has unique ecotourism characteristics that distinguish it from other ecotourism destinations. This study seeks to examine the appropriateness of BTSNP sustainable development-based ecotourism through the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) approach. This study used TripAdvisor reviews related to BTSNP in 2019 as the main data. The data were analyzed using a qualitative approach. The results of this study revealed the extent to which the process of developing BTSNP ecotourism on the basis of sustainable development as observed from economic, tourism, socio-cultural, and environmental aspects. The results of this study are expected to be considerations for policy-making to develop tourism that pays attention to the environment by not imposing BTSNP boundaries as protected areas for conservation.

Spatial-temporal dynamics of deforestation and its drivers indicate need for locally-adapted environmental governance in Colombia

Characterizing and managing deforestation are some of the most urgent environmental challenges in the tropics. Forest loss depends on multiple drivers that relate to ecological and socio-economic conditions, and varies significantly in time and space. Understanding the causes and potential consequences of forest loss in a region, requires detailed knowledge of the spatial and temporal behavior of deforestation drivers. This is especially important in Colombia, a country with an immense geographical, ecological and cultural diversity. In this work we use a spatially-explicit modeling platform to identify the influence of multiple deforestation drivers in different biogeographical and planning regions of Colombia. Models were used to produce different deforestation scenarios, resulting in contrasting trends. Results suggest that agricultural activities have a significant role in deforestation in Colombia, although its influence largely varies among regions. Notably, the long-lasting internal conflict in the country, indicated here by a proxy variable, produced contrasting effects on historical deforestation, such that in some areas it acted as an attractor and in some others as a deterrent of deforestation. Our scenarios for the mid-21st century indicate that current trends in deforestation and its drivers (except the internal conflict due to a recent peace agreement) can potentially lead to major ecological impacts, such as fragmentation and loss of connectivity among ecosystems. In the Governance scenario, however, enforcement of conservation in protected areas ensures partial forest conservation, highlighting the key relevance of these areas for biodiversity conservation in the country and for controlling the expansion of deforestation. Given the high spatial and temporal variability of deforestation, and that the same drivers can lead to different responses in different geographic areas, decision-making needs a more efficient approach for designing locally-adapted measurements to face current challenges of conservation and management of forests and their services.

Reconciling conservation and development in protected areas of the Global South

As cornerstones for biodiversity conservation, protected areas (PAs) are critical to safeguard biodiversity. However, PAs are criticized for their limited ecological effectiveness and their negative social impacts. This article seeks to provide an overview on the contested nature of PAs and places PAs in the tension field of conservation and development, which are diverging forces specifically in the Global South. A reconciliation of PAs as parts of a wider landscape of interlinked social-ecological systems may increase the potential of PAs to contribute to the sustainable development goals, including the creation of sustainable human-nature relationships, environmental health and landscape resilience. The environmental justice framework appears useful in the endeavour to improve the social-ecological integrity of current conservation practises and to increase the ability of PA systems to withstand shocks. Considering PAs as systems in which people and nature interact in manifold ways may help increase their integrity, but understanding these interactions requires sustainability researchers and conservation practitioners to recognize the plurality in value towards nature, nature understanding and conceptualisations. Such deep understanding seems pivotal in working towards synergies of sustainable use, biocultural diversity and wilderness. Concludingly, this article emphasizes the need for holistic approaches rather than sectoral specialisations and radicalisations to achieve arrays of sustainability goals.

Why militarized conservation may be counter-productive: illegal wildlife hunting as defiance

In response to the past decade's surge in the illegal hunting of rhinoceros for the global trade in their horn, conservation authorities in southern Africa have increased the securitization of protected area conservation. Political ecologists have warned that violent, militarized approaches are counter-productive, because they fail to address the root causes of poachingand may provide the moral justification for those already marginalized by conservation to hunt wildlife illegally. This is a powerful set of critiques, but scholars have yet to provide an empirically derived explanation of how and why militarized conservation might contribute to, rather than prevent, environmental harms. This lack of explanation emerges from a concerning scarcity of scholarly attention to the people who are actually living with militarized conservation. In response to the increased monitoring and arrests that accompanied the securitization of Mozambique's Limpopo National Park (LNP), Park residents expressed fear, anger, and resentment. Yet they continued to engage in the illegal subsistence-based practices of fishing and hunting in the face of mounting enforcements against these practices. In interviews and public demonstrations, residents consistently questioned the legitimacy of rangers' actions and authority, neutralizing the problem of their own potential involvement in illegal activities by focusing instead on the unjust and morally questionable behaviors of rangers. According to defiance theory, environmental harms will increase as the legitimacy of conservation policies, tactics, and authority decline. As defiance figures into and informs residents' decisions to continue to engage in subsistence-based practices, it may also motivate and justify people's involvement in the more lucrative and harmful activity of hunting threatened and endangered wildlife for the global trade. This article demonstrates why there is a need to fundamentally rethink the increased securitization of protected area conservation and addresses the need for improved understandings of human agency in the face of militarized conservation.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Mitigation Measures within the Forestry and Other Land Use Subsector in Malawi

Analysing past trends of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions remains indispensable to the understanding of current GHG emissions, thereby enabling prediction of future emissions as well as development of their mitigative pathways. This study quantified GHG emissions within the Forest and Other Land Use (FOLU) subsector in Malawi for the period 2011 to 2020. Results indicate that Malawi’s GHG emissions in the FOLU subsector fluctuated but decreased by 0.84 MtCO2e (13%) from 2011 to 2020, averaging to −1.3% annually. The GHG emissions of different categories within the subsector were highly significant ( p < 0.001 ) and contributed the highest (99.72%) of the total variation. Forestland contributed the highest (74%) of the subsector category emissions, followed by biomass burning (19%). The uncertainties for the estimated GHG emissions were low (<15%). This shows that the estimated GHG emissions within the FOLU subsector were significantly minimised. Notable interventions that have abated the emissions include afforestation and natural/assisted regeneration; protection and conservation of protected areas through the REDD+ mechanism; establishment of seed banks for raising drought-tolerant tree species; and breeding of fast-growing and drought-tolerant tree species; as well as screening of disease and pest-resistant species and promotion of biological control.

Revealing stakeholders' motivation and influence in crane conservation in the Republic of Korea: Net‐Map as a tool

AbstractBiodiversity conservation in protected areas requires strict legal limitations to land use. In the Civilian Control Zone (CCZ) of the Republic of Korea (ROK), military control has created an accidental sanctuary for the world's rarest crane species: the white‐naped crane (Antigone vipio) and the red‐crowned crane (Grus japonensis). Yet varying land use demands on the CCZ by stakeholders have caused disagreements in achieving cooperative crane conservation. This paper aims to clarify relevant stakeholders' interconnection and their motives that have led them to either promote or inhibit crane conservation in the Cheorwon Basin of the CCZ. To answer these questions, we conducted participatory Net‐Map interviews and identified stakeholders with a powerful role in crane conservation. Our results identify 44 stakeholders whose trust relations occurred twice as often as conflicts. More than 80% of stakeholders included in this study supported crane conservation initiatives. We attribute local farmers' increased level of environmental stewardship to two key schemes: a community‐led farming project generating financial incentives and a communication channel for stakeholders. Our case study demonstrates that Net‐Map is a valid tool to analyze human‐crane interactions, which is critical to ensure acceptance of legal restrictions to land use as well as crane conservation.

Unusual male size vs sperm count relationships in a coastal marine amphipod indicate reproductive impairment by unknown toxicants

Sperm quantity/quality are significant reproductive endpoints with clear links to population level dynamics. Amphipods are important model organisms in environmental toxicology. Despite this, field monitoring of male fertility in invertebrates has rarely been used in monitoring programs. The aim of this study was to compare sperm quality/quantity in an amphipod collected at six UK locations with differing water quality. Due to low sperm counts and an observed lack of relationship between sperm count and weight in amphipods collected from a nationally protected conservation area (Langstone Harbour, England), we also compared datasets from this site over a decade to determine the temporal significance of this finding. One collection to evaluate a female reproductive endpoint was also performed at this site. Interestingly, this harbour consistently presented some of the lowest sperm counts comparable to highly industrial sites and low eggs number from females. Amphipods collected from all the sites, except from Langstone Harbour, presented strong positive correlations between sperm count and weight. Given Langstone Harbour has several international and national protected statutes primarily for marine life and birds, our results indicate that E. marinus, one important food component for wading birds, might be impacted by unknown reproductive stressors. These unknown stressors maybe related to agricultural runoff, leachate from historical landfills and effluent from storm water overflows. This study highlights the importance of exploring new reproductive endpoints such as sperm quantity/quality in marine monitoring programs.

The importance of buffer zones in woody vegetation conservation in areas that combine mega-fauna and anthropogenic disturbance: The case of Save Valley landscape, south-eastern Zimbabwe

This study evaluated the influence of human and elephant (Loxodonta africana) utilization of woody vegetation across three land use categories; a protected conservation area (Save Valley Conservancy, SVC), a buffer zone and the adjacent communal lands of Mutema-Musikavanhu communities in the Save Valley landscape, south-eastern Zimbabwe. A total of 45 plots were assessed with 15 plots randomly placed in each of the three treatments. The following attributes were compared: tree, shrub and sapling density, tree and shrub species diversity, tree height, tree canopy cover and basal area, elephant dung density, and lastly, elephant, fire and human impacts (e.g., stump and coppicing density) on woody vegetation. Although there were no significant treatment effects (P > 0.05) on fire damage levels, number of stems per tree, alien woody plant density and coppiced woody plant density, human activities and elephant herbivory affected the rest of the measured attributes. Human and elephant herbivory disturbances were intermediate in intensity within the buffer zone where the maximum woody species diversity and the largest basal area were recorded. Elephant impact was high in the SVC and human harvesting high in the communal areas with variable negative consequences for woody vegetation (e.g., increased shrubbiness in SVC and lower tree densities in communal areas). It is likely that with an increasing population of elephants in the SVC and human population increases in Mutema-Musikavanhu communal area, severe disturbance of woodlands is likely to escalate in the Save Valley landscape. At present, the buffer zone serves as a refuge to woodlands, however there is need for continuous monitoring of woodlands across varying land use categories to inform future conservation strategies.

Tree Composition, Diversity, and Stand Structure of Mid-montane Forest in Sipit Watershed, Mount Makiling Forest Reserve ASEAN Heritage Park, Philippines

This study aimed to establish benchmark data and assess diversity, stand structure, and identify species and habitats that need immediate protection and conservation and monitor ecosystems dynamics through time. A 2-ha long-term ecological research (LTER) plot was established in the mid-montane forest in Sipit Watershed of Mount Makiling Forest Reserve ASEAN Heritage Park (MMFR AHP). Fifty 20 m x 20 m subplots were established from the said 2-ha LTER plot and oriented 100 m north and 200 m east. Trees with diameter at breast height (DBH) of ≥ 10 cm were measured in fifty 20 m x 20 m plots. A total of 1,055 tree individuals belonging to 73 species among 49 genera and 33 families were inventoried. The importance value index (IVI) shows dominant species – namely, Antidesma pleuricum Tul. (40.40), Neolitsea vidalii Merr. (34.14), Palaquium philippense C.B.Rob. (27.77), Micromelum minutum (G.Forst) Wight & Arn. (27.50), and Syzygium barnesii (Merr.) Merr. (16.16). Further, the inventory recorded a total of 11 threatened species thriving in the area and several species suspected to be unique in the area or can only be found abundant therein. The study reveals that the population of P. philippense was maintained intact and preserved within the Sipit Watershed for about a hundred years. Findings also reveal a very high diversity at 3.32 Shannon diversity index with an evenness of 0.28 and relatively high endemism, where 44% (32 species) of the 73 species are endemic. The study is very significant in long-term vegetation dynamics for sustainable management and conservation of protected areas like MMFR AHP, as well as for future research and studies for biodiversity conservation, climate change, and protection of other mountain ecosystems.