Protected Areas In Africa Research Articles

Scaling up a one-health model of conservation through public health: experiences in Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Abstract Background Endangered mountain gorillas are threatened by habitat destruction, wildlife poaching, and disease—factors exacerbated by high levels of human poverty and population growth rates in and around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. In 2003, Conservation Through Public Health (CTPH) was founded when fatal scabies skin disease outbreaks in Bwindi gorillas were traced to local communities who had inadequate access to basic health services. In 2007, CTPH implemented volunteer community-based family planning and later trained village health and conservation teams. These teams, using the one-health approach, promoted family planning, health, and conservation. The work resulted in a three-fold increase in family-planning users, reduced incidence of gorilla disease, and greater community support for conservation. Further, women become more involved in conservation and men become more involved in family planning. Here, we describe the scaling up of the one-health approach to protected areas in Africa. Methods In 2015, CTPH expanded the model of village health and conservation teams, sustained by village savings and loan associations, to a protected area with gorillas, at Mikeno and Mount Tshiabirimu sectors of Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and to a non-protected gorilla area in Bukwo, Kween, and Bulambuli Districts of Mount Elgon National Park, Uganda. Both areas have high poverty levels and human population densities. Staff from CTPH monitored the project; village health and conservation teams collected data at household level. Findings Between 2015 and 2017, 81 000 people from 13 000 households in 139 villages in five districts were reached by 163 village health and conservation teams. Teams established ten financially stable networks that had group livestock to generate income that was reinvested in Village Savings and Loan Associations. Some households had improved water sanitation and hygiene, and 1597 patients with scabies were referred to the nearest health centre, as were 35 people with tuberculosis and 1674 with malnutrition. There was also an uptake of family planning services, including: implants (571 people), the contraceptive pill (479), intrauterine devices (119), tubal ligation (163), and side-effects management (749). At Mount Elgon, 9652 homes planted trees. Contraceptives from the Ministry of Health in Uganda, were provided free of charge to 3829 people in Mount Elgon and 285 people in Virunga. Interpretation CTPH's one-health approach has promoted better family planning, population, health, and conservation in Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Scaling up requires more resources and dedicated organisational, governmental, professional, and community collaborations. Funding Global Development Network Japanese Social Development Fund.

Fencing Africa's protected areas: Costs, benefits, and management issues

The fencing of protected areas (PAs) is highly controversial, and much remains unknown about the associated financial, ecological, and social impacts. We surveyed experts on 63 fenced and 121 unfenced PAs across 23 African countries to assess the advantages and drawbacks of fencing. Where fences exist, they are largely supported and widely viewed as effective at demarcating PA boundaries and mitigating human-wildlife conflicts. However, most fences were insufficiently funded, which limited their ability to contain conflict-prone species like elephants and lions. Fences were also frequently vandalised and caused numerous conflicts with local communities. We documented for the first time the distribution of and support for fencing in PAs across Africa. While fencing is largely limited to Southern Africa and East Africa, support for fencing is greatest in West Africa and is associated with high human and livestock densities, and high threats from bushmeat harvesting, livestock encroachment, and logging.

More than $1 billion needed annually to secure Africa’s protected areas with lions

Protected areas (PAs) play an important role in conserving biodiversity and providing ecosystem services, yet their effectiveness is undermined by funding shortfalls. Using lions (Panthera leo) as a proxy for PA health, we assessed available funding relative to budget requirements for PAs in Africa's savannahs. We compiled a dataset of 2015 funding for 282 state-owned PAs with lions. We applied three methods to estimate the minimum funding required for effective conservation of lions, and calculated deficits. We estimated minimum required funding as $978/km2 per year based on the cost of effectively managing lions in nine reserves by the African Parks Network; $1,271/km2 based on modeled costs of managing lions at ≥50% carrying capacity across diverse conditions in 115 PAs; and $2,030/km2 based on Packer et al.'s [Packer et al. (2013) Ecol Lett 16:635-641] cost of managing lions in 22 unfenced PAs. PAs with lions require a total of $1.2 to $2.4 billion annually, or ∼$1,000 to 2,000/km2, yet received only $381 million annually, or a median of $200/km2 Ninety-six percent of range countries had funding deficits in at least one PA, with 88 to 94% of PAs with lions funded insufficiently. In funding-deficit PAs, available funding satisfied just 10 to 20% of PA requirements on average, and deficits total $0.9 to $2.1 billion. African governments and the international community need to increase the funding available for management by three to six times if PAs are to effectively conserve lions and other species and provide vital ecological and economic benefits to neighboring communities.

Reconciling corruption with conservation triage: Should investments shift from the last best places?

Considerable outside funding will be required to overcome the financial shortfalls faced by most of Africa’s protected areas. Given limited levels of external support, it will be essential to allocate these funds wisely. While most recent studies on conservation triage have recommended prioritizing reserves with the highest remaining conservation value (the “last best places”), such investments are complicated by the fact that these same reserves often attract the greatest revenues from ecotourism and thus the most attention from corrupt local governments. Alternatively, philanthropic organizations might achieve greater returns from investing in the management of neglected areas with lower current conservation value but with less financial leakage from corruption. We outline here how high levels of corruption could favor a strategy that shifts investments away from the last best places.

Boots on the ground: in defense of low-tech, inexpensive, and robust survey methods for Africa’s under-funded protected areas

Protected area managers need reliable information to detect spatial and temporal trends of the species they intend to protect. This information is crucial for population monitoring, understanding ecological processes, and evaluating the effectiveness of management and conservation policies. In under-funded protected areas, managers often prioritize ungulates and carnivores for monitoring given their socio-economic value and sensitivity to human disturbance. Aircraft-based surveys are typically utilized for monitoring ungulates because they can cover large areas regardless of the terrain, but such work is expensive and subject to bias. Recently, unmanned aerial vehicles have shown great promise for ungulate monitoring, but these technologies are not yet widely available and are subject to many of the same analytical challenges associated with traditional aircraft-based surveys. Here, we explore use of inexpensive and robust distance sampling methods in Kafue National Park (KNP) (22,400 km2), carried out by government-employed game scouts. Ground-based surveys spanning 101, 5-km transects resulted in 369 ungulate group detections from 20 species. Using generalized linear models and distance sampling, we determined the environmental and anthropogenic variables influencing ungulate species richness, density, and distribution. Species richness was positively associated with permanent water and percent cover of closed woodland vegetation. Distance to permanent water had the strongest overall effect on ungulate densities, but the magnitude and direction of this effect varied by species. This ground-based approach provided a more cost-effective, unbiased, and repeatable method than aerial surveys in KNP, and could be widely implemented by local personnel across under-funded protected areas in Africa.

Models for the collaborative management of Africa's protected areas

Africa's protected areas (PAs) are under severe and growing anthropogenic pressure. Resources for PA management are a small fraction of what is necessary in most countries, and many PAs are failing to fulfil their ecological, economic or social potential as a result. Collaborative management partnerships (CMPs), where non-profit organisations partner with state wildlife authorities, have the ability to improve PA management by facilitating long-term financial and technical support. While many have demonstrated success, there are barriers to setting up CMPs, including concern among some states that some partnerships may undermine sovereignty or appear an admission of failure. We interviewed 69 experts from state and non-profit partners about 43 PAs covering 473,861km2 in 16 African countries and analysed responses with principle component analysis to identify how partnerships differ, particularly in how they allocate governance and management responsibility. We identified three main CMP organisational structures: 1) delegated management, where a non-profit shares governance responsibility with the state and is delegated full management authority; 2) co-management, where a non-profit shares governance and management responsibility with the state; and 3) financial and technical support (advisory or implementary), where a non-profit assists the state with aspects of management without formal decision-making authority. Delegated models were associated with higher funding than co-management and financial-technical support partnerships, but models did not differ in PA land area size. Our study identifies the strengths and weaknesses of each model and offers recommendations for implementing successful CMPs, many of which are already playing a significant, positive role in conservation.

Revenue sharing from tourism in terrestrial African protected areas

ABSTRACT A prerequisite for the sustainability of protected areas in Africa is the meaningful inclusion of local populations in conservation and tourism. This has been demonstrated in numerous destinations where communities receive benefits from tourism in terrestrial protected areas, they are more inclined to view it positively and conserve natural resources. This paper presents a review of revenue-sharing literature, and also an analysis of the evidence of quantified benefits accrued by local communities in Africa through institutional arrangements to share revenue or finance development projects by (1) protected areas, and (2) tourism enterprises. The review highlights the challenges of revenue sharing as well as four key components of successful revenue-sharing systems: (1) economic benefits must be clearly identified and communicated, (2) benefits are appropriate to the scale of threats to biodiversity, (3) involvement of communities in decision-making on the structure and process of the distribution system, and also how the revenues are used and (4) sufficient regulatory and institutional support is necessary to develop clear objectives, aims, goals and responsibilities. This paper constitutes the first multi-country, multi-scheme analysis of revenue sharing in terrestrial African protected areas.

Anthropogenic disturbance induces opposing population trends in spotted hyenas and African lions

Large carnivore populations are declining worldwide due to direct and indirect conflicts with humans. Protected areas are critical for conserving large carnivores, but increasing human-wildlife conflict, tourism, and human population growth near these sanctuaries may have negative effects on the carnivores within sanctuary borders. Our goals were to investigate how anthropogenic disturbance along the edge of the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya, influences the demography and space-use of two large carnivore species that engage in intense interspecific competition. Here we document, in one disturbed region of the Reserve, a rapid increase in the population size of one large predator, the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), but a striking concurrent decline in numbers of another, the African lion (Panthera leo). Anthropogenic disturbances negatively affected lion populations, and decreasing lion numbers appear to have a positive effect on hyena populations, indicated here by an increase in juvenile survivorship. We also saw an increase in the number of livestock consumed by hyenas. Our results suggest human population growth and indirect effects of human activity along Reserve boundaries may be effecting a trophic cascade inside the Reserve itself. These results indicate both top-down and bottom-up processes are causing a shift in the carnivore community, and a major disruption of guild structure, inside the boundaries of one of the most spectacular protected areas in Africa.

Synergistic effects of climate and land-use change on representation of African bats in priority conservation areas

Bats are considered important bioindicators and deliver key ecosystem services to humans. However, it is not clear how the individual and combined effects of climate change and land-use change will affect their conservation in the future. We used a spatial conservation prioritization framework to determine future shifts in the priority areas for the conservation of 169 bat species under projected climate and land-use change scenarios across Africa. Specifically, we modelled species distribution models under four different climate change scenarios at the 2050 horizon. We used land-use change scenarios within the spatial conservation prioritization framework to assess habitat quality in areas where bats may shift their distributions. Overall, bats’ representation within already existing protected areas in Africa was low (∼5% of their suitable habitat in protected areas which cover ∼7% of Africa). Accounting for future land-use change resulted in the largest shift in spatial priority areas for conservation actions, and species representation within priority areas for conservation actions decreased by ∼9%. A large proportion of spatial conservation priorities will shift from forested areas with little disturbance under present conditions to agricultural areas in the future. Planning land use to reduce impacts on bats in priority areas outside protected areas where bats will be shifting their ranges in the future is crucial to enhance their conservation and maintain the important ecosystem services they provide to humans.

Influence of protected areas on malaria prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa

IntroductionDespite exponential growth in the number and extent of protected areas globally, their role within disease dynamics remains unclear. Protected areas shape many biophysical and social factors related to malaria prevalence such as land use-land cover, biodiversity, socioeconomic conditions, and human behavior. This work examines the extent to which protected areas influence Plasmodium falciparum malaria prevalence within surrounding human populations throughout Sub-Saharan Africa.. MethodsUsing malaria prevalence data from 2008 to 2012, we tested for differences in mean malaria prevalence at survey locations according to the IUCN classification of the nearest protected area. We also used dual logistic regression and Random Forest approaches to model malaria burdens at survey locations using a variety of known biophysical determinants of malaria in addition to protected area related covariates. ResultsWe found that malaria prevalence differed by IUCN class, with survey locations near IUCN classes Ia and III exhibiting significantly higher prevalence values than all other classes. Additionally, distance to the nearest protected area emerged as an important predictor of malaria prevalence in the logistic regression model, with lower malaria prevalence at locations closer to protected areas (OR: 1.14; 95% CI: 1.10–1.17). Distance was of moderate importance in the Random Forest models; however, the relationship between distance and prevalence was nonlinear.. ConclusionsWe show that, at a continental scale, malaria prevalence was lower for populations closer to protected areas in Africa, compared to farther away. However, we also found evidence of spatially complex relationships, both around individual protected areas, and across protected areas at this geographic extent, reinforcing the need for additional, small-scale case studies. Ultimately, by showing a link between protected areas and disease presence, this work helps improve understanding of the complex, multiscalar drivers of malaria..

Genetic analysis shows low levels of hybridization between African wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica) and domestic cats (F.s.catus) in South Africa.

Hybridization between domestic and wild animals is a major concern for biodiversity conservation, and as habitats become increasingly fragmented, conserving biodiversity at all levels, including genetic, becomes increasingly important. Except for tropical forests and true deserts, African wildcats occur across the African continent; however, almost no work has been carried out to assess its genetic status and extent of hybridization with domestic cats. For example, in South Africa it has been argued that the long-term viability of maintaining pure wildcat populations lies in large protected areas only, isolated from human populations. Two of the largest protected areas in Africa, the Kgalagadi Transfrontier and Kruger National Parks, as well as the size of South Africa and range of landscape uses, provide a model situation to assess how habitat fragmentation and heterogeneity influences the genetic purity of African wildcats. Using population genetic and home range data, we examined the genetic purity of African wildcats and their suspected hybrids across South Africa, including areas within and outside of protected areas. Overall, we found African wildcat populations to be genetically relatively pure, but instances of hybridization and a significant relationship between the genetic distinctiveness (purity) of wildcats and human population pressure were evident. The genetically purest African wildcats were found in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, while samples from around Kruger National Park showed cause for concern, especially combined with the substantial human population density along the park's boundary. While African wildcat populations in South Africa generally appear to be genetically pure, with low levels of hybridization, our genetic data do suggest that protected areas may play an important role in maintaining genetic purity by reducing the likelihood of contact with domestic cats. We suggest that approaches such as corridors between protected areas are unlikely to remain effective for wildcat conservation, as the proximity to human settlements around these areas is projected to increase the wild/domestic animal interface. Thus, large, isolated protected areas will become increasingly important for wildcat conservation and efforts need to be made to prevent introduction of domestic cats into these areas.

Rural Livelihoods Vulnerabilities and Commercial Bushmeat Hunting Challenges in Cross River National Park, Nigeria

Biodiversity conservation in parks and protected areas in Africa in general and especially in Nigeria is seriously threatened by the explosion of commercial bushmeat hunting activities in buffer zone communities. Several fauna species are becoming endangered and the list of extinct species is increasing due to commercial bushmeat hunting activities. Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative research techniques, this paper assesses the livelihoods vulnerability underpinnings of commercial bushmeat hunting activities in Cross River National Park (CRNP). Results reveal that commercial bushmeat hunting activities are shaped by a vulnerability context that hinges on different elements of environmental shocks, seasonal challenges and surrounding societal trends. The paper highlights the conservation and global sustainable development implications of uncontrolled commercial bushmeat hunting practices and concludes with options on policy recommendations and future research trajectories.

Changing Wildlife Populations in Nairobi National Park and Adjoining Athi-Kaputiei Plains: Collapse of the Migratory Wildebeest

There is mounting concern about declines in wildlife populations in many protected areas in Africa. Migratory ungulates are especially vulnerable to impacts of changing land use outside protected areas on their abundance. Range compression may compromise the capacity of migrants to cope with climatic variation, and accentuate both competitive interactions and predation. We analyzed the population dynamics of 11 ungulate species within Kenya's Nairobi National Park, and compared them to those in the adjoining Athi-Kaputiei Plains, where human settlements and other develop- ments had expanded. The migratory wildebeest decreased from almost 30,000 animals in 1978 to around 5,000 currently but the migratory zebra changed little regionally. Hartebeest, impala, eland, Thomson's gazelle, Grant's gazelle, water- buck, warthog and giraffe numbers declined regionally, whereas buffalo numbers expanded. Bimonthly counts indicated temporary movements of several species beyond the unfenced park boundaries, especially during very wet years and that few wildebeest entered the park during the dry season following exceptionally wet conditions in 1998. Wildebeest were especially vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts in their wet season dispersal range on the plains. Deterioration in grassland conditions in the park following high rainfall plus lack of burning may have discouraged these animals from using the park as a dry season refuge. Our findings emphasise the interdependency between the park and the plains for seasonal wildlife movements, especially in exceptionally dry or wet years. To effectively conserve these ungulates, we recommend implementation of the new land-use plan for the Athi-Kaputiei Plains by the county government; expansion of the land leasing program for biodiversity payments; collecting poacher's snares; negotiation and enforcement of easements, allow- ing both wildlife and livestock to move through the Athi-Kaputiei Plains, providing incentives for conservation to land- owners; and improving grassland conditions within the park through controlled burning so that more wildlife can gain protection there.

Sustaining protected areas: Identifying and controlling deforestation and forest degradation drivers in the Ankasa Conservation Area, Ghana

Although protected areas in Africa contain possibly the highest repositories of carbon and thus can play a role in mitigating the effects of climate change through carbon sequestration, they are threatened due to increasing levels of deforestation and forest degradation (DFD). However, little information is available on the on-site causes of DFD in these areas. This paper estimates the levels of DFD and identifies the drivers in the Ankasa Conservation Area (ACA) in Ghana as a case study. A survey was used to identify both direct and underlying factors that promote the DFD. The extent of deforestation was estimated using satellite images. The survey data were analyzed using rankings and ordinal logistic regression techniques, while digital image classification and change detection were used to analyze land cover changes. The results show that DFD occurred at a higher rate in the periphery of the ACA compared to the core-protected and the farthest areas. Agricultural and wood harvesting activities were the main direct causes of DFD. Poverty and large in-migrations of people for cocoa farming were important underlying economic and population growth factors. To address these problems and enable ACA to contribute more to biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation, the community resource management institutions should be fully adopted and strengthened and priority given to livelihood improvement and ecosystem services provision in the periphery of the ACA.

Integrating Research with Management: The Case of Katavi National Park, Tanzania

Many protected areas in Africa and elsewhere suffer from several external pressures making it difficult for management to set priorities. For example, aerial censuses show that many mammal populations in the Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem of western Tanzania are declining. Vehicle transect data collected from 1995 to 2011 and presented here confirm many of these declines within Katavi National Park itself. Two factors are believed to be adversely affecting large mammals in this national park: (i) reduced water flow caused by local damming of the Katuma River, for rice cultivation upstream of the park, and (ii) poaching. We used transect data, anti-poaching records and timing of dam emplacements to examine the importance of these factors for 23 species of mammalian herbivores and carnivores as well as two combinatorial measures of mammal species’ abundances. Controlling for rainfall, we found that the number of mammals counted per year was associated with both poaching and dams, the importance of which depended on...

Integrating research with management: the case of Katavi National Park, Tanzania

Many protected areas in Africa and elsewhere suffer from several external pressures making it difficult for management to set priorities. For example, aerial censuses show that many mammal populations in the Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem of western Tanzania are declining. Vehicle transect data collected from 1995 to 2011 and presented here confirm many of these declines within Katavi National Park itself. Two factors are believed to be adversely affecting large mammals in this national park: (i) reduced water flow caused by local damming of the Katuma River, for rice cultivation upstream of the park, and (ii) poaching. We used transect data, anti-poaching records and timing of dam emplacements to examine the importance of these factors for 23 species of mammalian herbivores and carnivores as well as two combinatorial measures of mammal species’ abundances. Controlling for rainfall, we found that the number of mammals counted per year was associated with both poaching and dams, the importance of which depended on the species. Both factors appear to be adversely affecting mammal populations in Katavi National Park and we make recommendations to both management and policy makers for tackling these problems. More generally, our study shows that wildlife managers of protected areas in the developing world can readily collect information on wildlife trends and basic ecology and can use them for conservation planning.

Contesting Views on a Protected Area Conservation and Development in Ethiopia

This article discusses the contention between the state and local Guji people on issues of development and conservation of a Protected Area—Nech Sar National Park in southern Ethiopia. The park, which covers over 514 square kilometers, is a contested space between different actors, not only for its economic values, but it is also an arena of contestation over development and conservation perspectives. Since its inception as a national park in 1974, it has been administered with strict protectionist conservation approach, and later in 1990s, the ‘modernist’ development program was introduced in the form of ecotourism. On the contrary, the Guji people had strong determination for conservation embedded deep in their worldviews and beliefs. By tracing the genesis of the philosophies behind protected areas in Africa, particularly how it was adopted by the Ethiopian state and its implications, I argue that contrasts in environmental cosmologies between the western and indigenous perspectives have ultimately resulted in unsustainable resource management and also disrupted local livelihood conditions. Despite its existence as an independent country, Ethiopia also experienced similar conservation models that were imported to colonial Africa. In this article, I argue that conservation, particularly in the form of protected areas, is a form of hegemonic control over territories, people and their spaces (historical, economic, cultural and political spaces).

A Local Counter-Narrative on the Conservation of Mountain Gorillas

Using social science narrative analysis, we studied how people who live next to Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (Bwindi INP) in Uganda narrate about their situation. We found a dominant ambivalence narrative, which deviates substantially from win–win and traditionalist narratives, both of which have been produced by external actors about the same case. Each of the two latter narratives is associated with a broader discourse on protected areas in Africa. The ambivalence narrative describes a situation in which villagers are forced to pay a high price for conservation of the habitat of mountain gorillas. Nevertheless, it contains hope for the future associated with economic benefits from the park through tourism. When looking at the findings of ‘realist’ studies of costs, benefits and participation, we conclude the dissatisfaction to be well-grounded. Furthermore, we highlight types of changes that would have to take place if the hope for the future is to be realised. The ambivalence narrative constitutes a counter-narrative to externally produced wisdom.

On the merits and feasibility of wildlife monitoring for conservation: a case study from Katavi National Park, Tanzania

Although long-term monitoring is viewed as an essential part of conserving wildlife populations, it is currently carried out in surprisingly few protected areas in Africa. Here, data from a 16-year vehicle transect monitoring programme in Katavi National Park, western Tanzania, are presented. These data provide information on large mammal densities, identify declines in populations of several large mammal species as based on encounter rates, support worrying trends observed in aerial census data and shed light on the effectiveness of recent changes in legal protection. Ground and aerial surveys confirmed that waterbuck, topi, warthog, lion and spotted hyaena populations are all in decline and that this should be a cause for concern. Counting animals by driving vehicle transects is relatively easy and inexpensive to carry out, and data here show that such counts have several pay-offs for conservation managers especially in identifying population declines; counts should be employed more often in East Africa and elsewhere.

Towards Understanding Large Mammal Population Declines in Africa's Protected Areas: A West-Central African Perspective

A raft of recent studies has highlighted a major decline in large mammal populations in many of Africa's protected areas. A recent continent-wide assessment represented a major step forward also in terms of quantifying the decline on a regional basis, but fell short in its sampling and analysis. In this paper, a way out of the “black box” of large mammal declines in Africa's protected areas is formulated, with the aim of assisting in the preparation of further assessments in the future. First, large mammal assessments are categorized, highlighting the importance of using and sometimes juxtaposing peer-reviewed sources. The importance of the length of time series of large mammal counts is stressed, allowing one to distinguish between natural variation (especially rainfall) and human-induced changes. Setting reference dates, such as 1970, often gives biased results, showing the need to interpret large mammal population assessments in a historic context as well. This holds true particularly for West-Central Africa, which has experienced a considerable decline in rainfall since 1970. Building on a framework that connects herbivore physiology and behavior with environmental gradients, examples are given to explain some striking observed changes. The declines in Africa's protected areas are not limited to large mammals, but have also been observed for large birds of prey. Assessments of large mammal populations should be accompanied by the identification of proximate drivers of change, for which a framework is suggested in this paper. To conclude, some suggestions for countering the declines in large mammal populations are presented.