Protected Area System Research Articles

Climate change and its potential impact on the conservation of the Hoary Fox, Lycalopex vetulus (Mammalia: Canidae)

We aimed to assess the potential impact of climate change on the geographic distribution of areas holding suitable climatic conditions for the presence of Lycalopex vetulus, and to discuss the implications of such distribution for the conservation of the species. We employed correlative modeling analyses to infer the geographic distribution of climatically suitable conditions for the species on climatic scenarios for the present and for years 2050 (average for 2041–2060) and 2070 (average for 2061–2080). The data consisted of species occurrences and 5 bioclimatic variables containing interpolated and averaged information on seasonal variation of temperature and precipitation. Models were projected onto climatic scenarios employing three different global circulation models and two representative concentration pathways. For each of these scenarios, we quantified the expected changes in area (km2) holding suitable climatic conditions and how much of that area is expected to be within the current Brazilian system of protected areas. Our results reveal that climate change represents a major threat for the survival of L. vetulus by drastically reducing its habitat availability in a period of time no longer than five decades from now. Experimental physiological and behavioral studies are necessary to assess whether L. vetulus is able to adequately tolerate under climatic conditions different to those under which the species is currently present.

Efficiency of unlocking or locking existing protected areas for identifying complementary areas for biodiversity conservation

It is well known that existing protected areas (PAs) should function as focal areas for expanding PA systems. The optimal complementary conservation areas are often identified by implementing two approaches in systematic conservation planning, i.e., unlocking or locking existing PAs. However, evidence-based studies are lacking for clarifying the efficiencies of these two planning approaches. With Sichuan in southwest China – part of a global biodiversity hotspot – as one case, this study first assessed the ecological representativeness of existing nature reserves (NRs). Using 32 natural vegetation types as the conservation features, we then implemented a systematic conservation planning process by running Marxan software with NR-unlocked and NR-locked scenarios. A human disturbance index was also included as a penalty function in Marxan for achieving cost-effective planning. We finally investigated the efficiencies of the unlocking and locking planning approaches by comparing the outcomes of the NR-unlocked and NR-locked scenarios. We found that existing NRs were geographically biased towards the western mountainous regions with high elevations and low human disturbance levels. For achieving the same quantitative conservation targets, the total area of the NR-locked priority conservation areas was 18.6% larger than that of the NR-unlocked areas, whereas the area of NR-locked complementary areas to existing NRs was 15.3% smaller than that of NR-unlocked ones. Moreover, the NR-locked priority conservation areas had higher ecological representativeness than NR-unlocked areas. The results suggest that if a completely new PA system is to be established without considering existing PAs, the unlocking approach could more efficiently achieve the full conservation targets at lower costs of land area and with better connected habitats. When existing PAs must be used as focal areas for expansion, the locking approach is more cost-effective for filling conservation gaps by requiring smaller amounts of complementary areas. Our analysis provides evidence-based support for expanding the current PA systems in a cost-effective manner.

Global trends in protected area connectivity from 2010 to 2018

Connectivity of protected areas (PAs) is needed to ensure the long-term persistence of biodiversity and ecosystem service delivery. The Convention on Biological Diversity agreed in 2010 to have 17% of land covered by well-connected PA systems by 2020 (Aichi Target 11). We here globally assess, for all countries, the trends in terrestrial PA connectivity every other year from 2010 to 2018 using the ProtConn indicator, which quantifies how well the PA systems are designed to support connectivity. The percentage of protected connected land (ProtConn) has increased globally from 6.5% in 2010 to 7.7% in 2018. Oceania experienced the largest recent increase in PA connectivity, whereas Asia is the only content with a lower ProtConn in 2018 than in 2010. Globally, the relative increase in the percentage of protected connected land (ProtConn) is nearly twice that of the percentage of land under protection (PA coverage), due to clear improvements in the design of PA systems for connectivity in many regions. The connectivity of the PA networks has become more dependent on the permeability of the unprotected landscape matrix in between PAs and on the coordinated management of adjacent PAs with different designations and of transboundary PA linkages. The relatively slow recent increase in PA connectivity globally (2016–2018) raises doubt as to whether connectivity targets will be met by 2020, and suggests that considerable further action is required to promote better-connected PA systems globally, including the expansion of the PA systems to cover key areas for connectivity in many countries and regions.

New 30 m resolution Hong Kong climate, vegetation, and topography rasters indicate greater spatial variation than global grids within an urban mosaic

Abstract. The recent proliferation of high-quality global gridded environmental datasets has spurred a renaissance of studies in many fields, including biogeography. However, these data, often 1 km at the finest scale available, are too coarse for applications such as precise designation of conservation priority areas and regional species distribution modeling, or purposes outside of biology such as city planning and precision agriculture. Further, these global datasets likely underestimate local climate variations because they do not incorporate locally relevant variables. Here we describe a comprehensive set of 30 m resolution rasters for Hong Kong, a small tropical territory with highly variable terrain where intense anthropogenic disturbance meets a robust protected area system. The data include topographic variables, a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index raster, and interpolated climate variables based on weather station observations. We present validation statistics that convey each climate variable's reliability and compare our results to a widely used global dataset, finding that our models consistently reflect greater climatic variation. To our knowledge, this is the first set of published environmental rasters specific to Hong Kong. We hope this diverse suite of geographic data will facilitate future environmental and ecological studies in this region of the world, where a spatial understanding of rapid urbanization, introduced species pressure, and conservation efforts is critical. The dataset (Morgan and Guénard, 2018) is accessible at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.6791276.

Impacts of climate change and human factors on land cover change in inland mountain protected areas: a case study of the Qilian Mountain National Nature Reserve in China.

Over the past few decades, natural reserves have been affected by both climate change and human activities, and their land cover has changed dramatically, especially in mountain reserves, which are more sensitive to climate change and human activities. This paper used long-term Landsat and MODIS NDVI remote sensing data to monitor the changes of land cover and vegetation conditions in the Qilian Mountain National Nature Reserve (QMNNR) in China from 1975 to 2015, and analysed the impacts of climate change and human activities in combination with meteorological and socioeconomic data. The results show that the land cover structure of the QMNNR has remained stable over the past 40years, but the total area of natural vegetation has decreased by 49.55km2, the artificial surface and cropland has expanded by 13.68 and 32.57km2 in some areas, respectively, and the glacier has retreated by 33.34km2 as a whole. The warming and humidification trend of the climate is the leading factor for glacial retreat and the improvement of the overall vegetation condition, while population growth and economic benefits lead to the expansion of cropland and artificial surfaces in some areas, thus causing the reduction of 18.80 and 28.30km2 in shrubland and grassland. This study proves that the system of protected areas plays a key role in maintaining the stability of the ecosystem structure and that reducing the population density around the protected areas and changing the mode of economic development can effectively reduce the intensity of human interference. Under the background of climate warming, the change of the ecosystem function in mountain protected areas is full of uncertainty, so management and protection strategies need to be studied in depth.

Top-level Design of the Natural Protected Area System in China

Top-level Design of the Natural Protected Area System in China

СONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF ECOLOGICAL TOURISM

The article addresses the issue of the lack of a single terminology used in the field of ecotourism, offers clarifications in existing concepts and provides a new definition of ecotourism. The emergence of ecotourism occurred as a result of increasing self-awareness and understanding of the global problems of mankind by the broad masses, who are now in favor of ecologization of various spheres of life. New trends to independent travel appeared on the tourist market, the range of the offered recreational and tourist services has expanded. The article proposes a classification of types of tourism, taking into account the criterion of tourist destination, where, depending on the purpose of tourist travel, the nature of the tourist area also changes. The intensification of the processes of formation of a system of protected areas, including in Ukraine, which are the basis for the development of ecotourism, was noted. According to environmental legislation, one of the uses of the territories and objects of the natural reserve fund is their use for tourist and other recreational purposes. Concepts that are closest in content to the term “ecotourism” are considered, such as “soft tourism” and “nature tourism.” Natural tourism is a broader concept than “ecotourism”, and is not always identical to it. The main conceptual approaches that have prevailed in the study of tourism since the 50s of the last century are analyzed. In the postwar period, the “defensive” concept prevailed, which tended to view tourism uncritically as an economic advantage for most tourist destinations. So, the mass tourism sector emerged. During the 1970s, the “defensive” concept faced a “precautionary” concept that viewed mass tourism in a more critical light due to its negative consequences. The next logical step in this evolution was the emergence 1980s of the “adaptation” concept, which introduced the concept of “alternative tourism” as a qualitative alternative to mass tourism. Ecotourism falls under alternative tourism. Mass tourism is in this model as a mutually exclusive category of tourism, divided by the so-called "conceptual barrier", such a structure is common in the literature. Ecotourism can strengthen the product of mass tourism, offering opportunities for diversification, enjoys particular attractiveness in light of the increasing "greening" of the tourism market. In turn, mass tourism provides a large market of potential ecotourists, which helps to position ecotourism as an important stakeholder (stakeholder) that can lobby interests along with stakeholders in other sectors, such as agriculture and logging. At the end of the last century, the concept of sustainable tourism emerged, which was conceived as tourism, which would not threaten the economic, social, cultural or ecological integrity of a tourist destination for a long time. It should meet the same criteria of environmental friendliness and impact on the social sphere, as “soft tourism”, but it should be guided by the interests of the local population. Sustainable tourism can also be realized in cities, while ecotourism takes place in areas close to nature, taking into account environmental, social and cultural influences. Based on this, ecotourism connects the sustainable development of the territory with nature conservation, that is, it should contribute to the preservation of natural resources, and also provides opportunities for environmental education for tourists and the public. The article presents the principles of ecotourism, which are used in international practice, at the same time emphasizing that among the principles are such as competent management of the development of ecotourism in unique natural complexes. Based on the analysis of various options for identifying types and forms of ecotourism, a classification of ecotourism types has been proposed.

Analysis of the contribution to conservation and effectiveness of the wetland reserve network in China based on wildlife diversity

Protected areas are among the most effective methods for conserving biodiversity and huge systems of protected areas have been constructed in many parts of the world. However, the coverage of the existing protected area network is inadequate and it is biased toward many species in various biological groups and ecosystems. In this study, we used a gap analysis to evaluate the contribution to conservation and effectiveness of the wetland reserve network in China by focusing on 216 national key protected species and 129 endangered wild animal species, where we compared the differences between wetland National Nature Reserves and National Wetland Parks. The results showed that a wetland National Nature Reserve and National Wetland Park network have been constructed in China and they have gradually increased in size, where the wildlife conservation efficacy is high and the proportion protected has increased. However, the percentage of protected wild animals has tended to stabilize in recent years at significantly less than 80%. Moreover, the protection of rare and endangered animals is not effective in the wetland National Nature Reserves and National Wetland Parks. In general, wetland National Nature Reserves that contain many more national key protected animals and endangered animals than the National Wetland Parks play more important roles in the conservation of wildlife. Furthermore, most of the national key protected animal species (77.3%) and 47.3% of endangered animals are protected and managed in the existing wetland National Nature Reserves and National Wetland Parks. However, numerous sea animals and some smaller animals are neglected, thus their protection is ineffective. A proportion of wild animal species are still unprotected by the protected wetland system, particularly species that belong to Caudata, Anura, Testudines, Cetacea, Falconiformes, Strigiformes, Pelecaniformes, Ciconiiformes, and Coraciiformes.

Canadians’ perspectives on how much space nature needs

Determining how much to set aside in a system of protected areas has been widely discussed. In the past, targets that have been set internationally and domestically are best described as politically driven. In recent years, there has been a call to shift towards evidence-based targets for conservation. One element that has been largely missing from this dialogue is public perception of how much to protect. We conducted an online, regionally balanced survey of just over 2000 Canadians to ask about their values for protected areas, including how much they thought was currently and should be protected. Overall, Canadians overwhelmingly agree that protected areas are necessary and think that approximately 50% of land and sea should be protected in Canada and globally. Nation-wide support for a significant increase in the amount of land/sea protected is a new finding in Canada, although consistent with applications of the same survey in other countries. As the timeline for achieving the current 2020 protected area targets approaches, countries are beginning to discuss what targets to set for the next decade. Our findings demonstrate strong public support for significantly scaling up Canada’s conservation targets, consistent with ecological evidence.

Cost-effective protection of biodiversity in the western Amazon

The western Amazon needs to expand its protected-area system to ensure the conservation of its immense and threatened biodiversity. However, potential expansions often meet with resistance because of scarce government resources and competing social priorities. Here, we proposed an expansion of the protected-area system for the western Amazon that increases biodiversity conservation at minimum costs. We started by evaluating biological data to establish conservation targets for enhancing protection of 2419 species of plants and vertebrates. We then built a map that shows the variation in costs of effectively managing lands as protected areas. We also adapted an opportunity cost layer for agriculture and livestock to approximate realistic foregone incomes when a particular extent of land is protected. These cost estimates were used in a decision-support tool to find the most inexpensive places to achieve the conservation targets. We found that this cost-optimized expansion would reduce annual costs by 22% in comparison to an expansion planned without cost data. Moreover, without collaboration with indigenous peoples and without cooperation among the western Amazon countries costs would be 39% and 49% higher, respectively. The cost of the proposed expansion, estimated at US$ 100 million annually, is only a fraction of the regional Gross Domestic Product (0.018%). Thus, this study may help governments and conservation agencies to improve financial planning of the region's reserve network by maximizing species protection at more affordable costs.

Remarks on the Venezuelan protected area system as listed on the World Database on Protected Areas and CBD Aichi Target 11

Remarks on the Venezuelan protected area system as listed on the World Database on Protected Areas and CBD Aichi Target 11

Identifying priority areas for invertebrate conservation using land snails as models

Mollusca is a megadiverse phylum with an estimated number of 70,000–76,000 described species which can inhabit a wide variety of environments. Among them, land snails are a main component of terrestrial ecosystems and they play a pivotal role in ecosystem functioning. They are suffering habitat loss, overexploitation and competition from introduced species, but are regarded as a “non-charismatic” group for conservation purposes. Orthalicoidea is a dominant faunal element in the Neotropics and in Argentina includes 104 species that inhabit a variety of environments. Their abundance, diversity, comprehensive taxonomy and widespread representation in different ecoregions makes this molluscan group an excellent model for biodiversity assessments. The database used here consisted of 985 unique geographic records of 104 species. Species distribution models were generated using the Maximum Entropy method and Zonation v 3.1 was used to evaluate the proposed conservation goals. Three analyses including species distributions, the current protected areas system (PAs) and the Human print layer were carried out. This allowed the identification of priority areas for conservation, the percentage of the species distribution under PAs and analysis of the potential impacts under current land use and in the priority areas detected above. Sixty-one species were modeled, and 59 of them were included in the priority area selection process due to their high area under curve (AUC) scores. Five high priority areas located in the different ecoregions, were identified: 1-dry Chaco, 2-humid Pampas, 3-Southern Andean Yungas, 4-Alto Paraná Atlantic Forests and 5-high Monte. A small percentage of the average distribution range of Orthalicoidean species (3%) was within the current protected areas. Highest-ranked priority areas for land snails are outside the current protected areas system. When human impact is considered, the priority areas are reduced in size and appear as small patches. However, highest priority areas for conservation continue being those detected in the above analyses. Most of the areas detected are used for economic purposes, creating conflicts of interest between the development of human activities and conservation. This study represents one of the first attempts to identify ecoregion level priority areas for a terrestrial invertebrate group. Further analyses, including new predictors and other molluscan taxa, would improve planning the conservation of poorly known invertebrate groups.

THE NETWORK OF PROTECTED AREAS IN THE MURMANSK PART OF THE GREEN BELT OF FENNOSCANDIA: HISTORY, CURRENT SITUATION AND PROSPECTS

The history of protected areas (PA) in the Murmansk part of the Green Belt of Fennoscandia (GBF) started back in the late 19 th century. The progress and properties of the PA network are associated with the history of the neighboring states and evolution of nature conservation ideas. The current PA network in GBF includes two strict nature reserves, two nature parks, three integrated regional nature reserves (zakazniks) and six regional nature monuments. Taken together, they cover 475 911 hectares, i. e. 16.4 % of the total area of GBF in the Murmansk Region. To optimize the protected areas network in this GBF ecological corridor, it is first of all necessary to establish the Vuorjema Federal Zakaznik and lonn-N'yugoajv Regional Zakaznik. The Vuorjema Federal Zakaznik together with the planned Norwegian PA Grense-Jakobselv will constitute an important node of the international environmental protection network. The Ionn-N'yugoajv Regional Zakaznik will complement the PA system together with Finnish Urho Kekkonen National Park and Laplandsky Les Zakaznik. It is also necessary to complete the reorganization of the Kutsa Zakaznik into the nature park with the prospect of organizing the bilateral Kutsa-Oulanka-Paanajarvi park. For the protected area network to function effectively, it is necessary to confer the status of high conservation value forests on the forest ecosystems along the national borders. Recent additions to Russian national forest legislation in regard to waterside protection forests significantly lower their environmental and conservation value.

Protected Areas and Biodiversity of the Kingdom of Bhutan

The unique landscape features of the Kingdom of Bhutan, associated with contrasting topography, abrupt height differences at short distances and with large amounts of monsoon precipitation in the summer time, are considered. The main feature in the landscapes of this region is determined: exceptional diversity of vegetation cover and animals. An analysis is made of the subtropical, temperate and alpine landscape-ecofloristic zones. In each of the zones, subtropical, temperate, subarctic (alpine type) and nival altitudinal belts are identified. A brief description of high-altitude belts and types of vegetation and animals is given. It is established that the largest space here is occupied by subtropical, broad-leaved and coniferous forests (80.9%) which stretch from the foot of the mountains to almost 3500 m above the sea level. The zones and belts are characterized by exceptional biodiversity with a large number of endemic fauna and flora. The system of protected areas of Bhutan is described, and a brief account of its national parks, and biological corridors is given. Attention is focused on the rational and careful attitude of the royal government toward nature, implying the establishment of national parks, nature preserves and wildlife sanctuaries which occupy half of the entire area of the State.

Participatory planning and monitoring of protected landscapes: a case study of an indigenous rice paddy cultural landscape in Taiwan

Landscapes can be regarded as ‘a culture–nature link.’ Many examples of ‘living’ landscapes in the world are rich in natural and cultural values and have proven sustainable over centuries because of their maintenance by local communities. Satoyama, a traditional socio-ecological production landscape, provides a functional linkage between paddy fields and the associated environment with many ecosystem services. The idea of landscape conservation and paddy field revitalization was introduced into Taiwan’s amended Cultural Heritage Preservation Act in 2005 as a new legal instrument entitled ‘Cultural Landscape.’ To help stakeholders from governmental authorities and local communities apply this new instrument, this action research employed a community-based landscape and participatory approach to put relevant international concepts into practice. Learning from culturally grounded indicators of resilience in social–ecological systems, the study adopted a set of indicators of resilience in socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes to successfully help residents evaluate the management of a designated Cultural Landscape through a series of local workshops. The case study shows that a landscape and participatory approach can be welcomed by rural people and can create a new style for ‘living’ protected landscapes in Taiwan’s nationally protected area system.

Public Support for Land Acquisition: A Key Instrument for Successful Land Conservation, Governance and Management

While it is recognized that protected areas are important for biodiversity conservation and human wellbeing, governments struggle to establish and/or enlarge protected areas. Land acquisition and the challenges encountered by governing institutions in funding protected area systems expansion is discussed in this paper using the Capital Regional District (CRD) Land Acquisition Fund as a case study. We briefly discuss land acquisition in British Columbia and in the CRD, and offer an overview of the CRD Land Acquisition Fund and the public participation process that led to its establishment. We emphasize the importance of developing political and citizen support, and a shared vision about expanding protected areas systems - a key element for nearly doubling the parkland base of CRD Regional Parks in less than 20 years. We conclude by offering the lessons learned through the case study and provide guidance for policy and governance directions with regard to land acquisition.

The characteristics of formation, development and evolution of National Protected Areas in China

This paper considers that the history of Chinese civilization is the historical foundation for the nationally protected areas and features the protected areas of China. After 1950, the formation, development and evolution of various protected areas conformed to the fundamental law of development of Chinese civilization. The protected areas are divided into three categories, namely the natural protected areas, cultural protected areas and comprehensive protected areas for the nature and culture. The natural protected areas are composed mainly of the national parks; the cultural protected areas are composed mainly of the Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level; and the comprehensive protected areas are composed mainly of National-level Scenic and Historic Interest Areas. In the new era of building an ecological civilization, it is crucial to develop a national protected area system including the aforementioned three protection systems in accordance with the unified deployment of the Central government. Three protection systems are supposed to cover various protected areas in China and develop a system of nationally protected areas with Chinese characteristics.

Trends in fragmentation and connectivity of Paspalum quadrifarium grasslands in the Buenos Aires province, Argentina.

BackgroundDespite its wide distribution worldwide, only 4.6% of temperate grasslands are included within systems of protected areas. In Argentina, this situation is even more alarming: only 1.05% is protected. The study area (central area of the southern Salado River basin) has a large extent of grasslands of Paspalum quadrifarium (Pq) which has been target since the middle of the last century of a variety of agricultural management practices including fire burning for cattle grazing.MethodsFive binary images of presence-absence data of Pq from a 42-year range (1974–2016) derived from a land cover change study were used as base data. Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA), Morphological Change Detection (MCD) and Network Connectivity Analysis (NCA) were performed to the data using Guidos Toolbox (GTB) for the estimation of habitat and connectivity dynamics of the Pq patches (fragments).ResultsA loss of the coverage area and habitat nuclei of this grassland was observed during the study period, with some temporal oscillation but no recovery to initial states. Additional drastic reduction in connectivity was also evident in resulting maps. The number of large Pq grassland fragments (>50 ha) decreased at beginning of the study period. Also, fragmentation measured as number of components (patches) was higher at the end of the study period. The Pq pajonal nuclei had their minimum representativeness in 2000, and recovered slightly in area in 2011, but with a significant percentage increase of smaller patches (=islets) and linear elements as bridges and branches. Large corridors (mainly edge of roads) could be observed at the end of the study period, while the total connectivity of the landscape pattern drops continuously. Statistics of links shows mean values decreasing from 1974 to 2016. On the other hand, maximum values of links decreased up to 19% in 2011, and recovered to a 54% of their original value in 2016.DiscussionPq fragmentation and habitat reduction could have an impact on the ecosystem functioning and the mobility of some species of native fauna. The connecting elements of the landscape were maintained and/or recovered in percentage in 2011 and 2016. This fact, although favoring the dispersion of the present diversity in the habitat nuclei could cause degradation by an edge effect. Part of the area has the potential to be taken as an area of research and as an example of livestock management, since it is the one that would most preserve the biodiversity of the Pq environment. On the methodological side, the use of a proved tool as GTB is useful for monitoring dynamics of a grassland-habitat fragmentation.

Khabarsky Reserve as the main object of the nature protected areas system in the Burla River basin

The analysis of distinctive features of the system of special nature protected areas (SNPA) in the developed regions of the south of Western Siberia is presented. The main criteria for the establishment of the nature protected area system (representativeness, typicality, uniqueness, diversity, socio-economic significance) are discussed. The characteristic of the system of SNPA in the Burla River basin was given, the problems of its functioning were defined, and the measures for its improvement using both traditional and new forms of nature protected areas were proposed. The Khabarsky Natural Reserve is estimated as a key object; functional zoning of its territory was made and three zones (special protected, recreational and agricultural) were specified. The economic activity regulations were elaborated for each zone. It was concluded that the newly established natural reserve meets most of the criteria for SNPA, including those for the developed regions.

Individual-level performance of nature reserves in forest protection and the effects of management level and establishment age

Many studies have evaluated the overall effectiveness of protected areas (PAs) in halting deforestation from a perspective of the entire PA system. However, few studies assess PA performance at an individual level, and investigate the effects of management level and establishment age of PAs. With nature reserves (NRs) in southwest China as the case, we set an independent control area (CA) for each NR 10-km away from its boundary to avoid the spillover effect. Forested pixels at least 300 m apart were then sampled within each NR and its CA. We applied the Propensity Score Matching method with five control variables to balance the heterogeneity of land characteristics between NR and CA sample pixels. Based on the matched samples for each NR, the individual effectiveness of 137 NRs between 2001 and 2012 was quantified. We then compared the effects of NRs with different management levels (national and provincial) and establishment ages (designated between 1981–1990 and 1991–2000) by means of nonparametric test and statistical inference. We found that approximately 63% of the NRs suffered less deforestation within their boundaries than in adjacent CAs. National NRs were more effective than provincial NRs in curbing deforestation, but age had little bearing on the effectiveness of NRs. Our results revealed that NRs could play a prominent role in the greening trends of southwest China. This study offers the first individual-level assessment on NR effectiveness for forest protection in southwest China, which helps provide a more solid support for promoting effective NR management.