Protected Area Management Effectiveness Research Articles

Evaluating the effectiveness of protected area management in Indonesia

Abstract Protected areas worldwide are strongholds for safeguarding biodiversity, natural habitats, ecosystem services and cultural values. Yet despite their importance, the effectiveness of protected area management varies greatly. Indonesia is a biodiversity hotspot, with 554 protected areas that cover 27 million ha across the archipelago. To assess and improve the management effectiveness of these protected areas, the Government of Indonesia applied an adapted version of the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT) to assess 422 of the country's protected areas, of which 170 were repeatedly assessed in 2015, 2017 and 2019. We investigated the METT score changes across these protected areas and the factors explaining the varying scores. Over the study years, METT scores significantly improved (mean increase of 44.1%). National parks had the highest mean score, which was 13.4 points higher than other protected area types. After correcting for spatial autocorrelation using a generalized least-squares model, we found that METT score increase was positively influenced by year of assessment and having a well-resourced management authority, with no influence of protected area size or mean protected area budget allocation per ha. The assessments identified five main threats to protected areas: poaching, illegal logging, human settlements, tourism and non-timber cultivation. The widespread and repeated use of METT across the protected areas of Indonesia and the increasing METT scores indicate an overall improvement in management and professionalism. Building on the foundational work in our study, future studies should assess the association between METT scores and progress made towards achieving the conservation objectives of protected areas.

Land cover changes and management effectiveness of protected areas in tropical coastal area of sub-Saharan Africa

Nature-based solutions to ecological challenges have continued to draw significant attention, and are connected to the increased establishment of protected areas as a means for climate and ecological crisis mitigation. This study presents an innovative approach that combines spatial and statistical analysis of land cover change and drivers to evaluate land use management and effectiveness of 22 designated protected areas (PAs) across the tropical coastal regions of sub-Saharan Africa. While the results provided insight into land use management and conservation priorities, it highlighted (1) the use of these protected areas for food production is prevalent, irrespective of its designation. Nevertheless, there is evidence of a decline in cropland in some of the protected areas, suggesting a shift in policy towards conservation land use. (2) The occurrence of forest loss suggests that conservation is weak in most of the protected areas, while wetland conservation efforts are stronger due to their land cover expansion. (3) Population density (human factor) is the most significant driver of land cover change in these protected areas, followed by elevation (natural environment), precipitation (climate), nighttime light (socio-economic), and slope (natural environment). (4) In terms of Ecosystem value, only 15 of the 22 protected areas exhibited an increase in their total ecosystem service value according to land cover change, indicating sustainable land use and measures effectiveness in these protected areas. However, based on an individual land cover assessment, most protected areas showed signs of loss, especially in forests. Given the projected population growth in Africa, a regular assessment of protected areas should be initiated to enable effective and timely management decisions. Additionally, policies to improve the management effectiveness of African protected areas through funding should be a top priority, while taking into consideration the livelihoods of the indigenous people in the area in order to find a sustainable balance.

Determining the level of sustainable management effectiveness in protected areas: The case of national parks

Korunan alanlarda koruma-kullanma dengesi sağlanarak yönetim etkinliğinin sürekli olarak değerlendirilmesi ve iyileştirici önlemlerin alınması sürdürülebilir bir yönetim için gereklidir. Bu çalışmanın amacı Türkiye’deki korunan alanların yönetim etkinlik düzeyinin belirlemek ve değerlendirmektir. Çalışmada örnek alan olarak Ege Bölgesindeki Spil Dağı Milli Parkı, Dilek Yarımadası-Büyük Menderes Deltası Milli Parkı ve Marmaris Milli Parkı seçilmiştir. Söz konusu alanların yönetim etkinlik düzeyinin belirlenmesinde küresel düzeyde yaygın olarak uygulanan araçlardan Yönetim Etkinliğini İzleme Aracı (METT-4) kullanılmıştır. Her üç milli parkın uzun devreli gelişme planları, yöneticiler ile yapılan görüşmeler ve METT-4 uygulamasından elde edilen veriler bu araştırmanın materyalini oluşturmaktadır. METT-4’ün uygulanmasında alanların bizzat yönetimlerinden sorumlu Milli Park Müdürleri, Milli Park Müdür Yardımcıları ve Milli Park Şeflerinin görüşlerine yer verilmiştir. Elde edilen veriler çizelgeler ile gösterilmiş ve verilerin değerlendirilmesinde yüzde hesaplamaları ile ortalamadan yararlanılmıştır. Yapılan değerlendirmeler neticesinde, Spil Dağı Milli Parkının yönetim etkinlik düzeyi %58 (orta düzeyde), Dilek Yarımadası-Büyük Menderes Deltası Milli Parkının %63 (iyi düzeyde) ve Marmaris Milli Parkının %48 (orta düzeyde) olarak bulunmuştur. Üç milli parkın yönetim etkinlik düzeyinin aritmetik ortalaması ise %56 olup, orta düzeyde bir etkinliği göstermektedir. Söz konusu alanlarda yönetim etkinliği değerlendirme unsurlarından Planlamanın ortalaması %70’lik düzeyle en iyi durumda iken, Girdiler (%59), Süreçler (%52), Çıktılar (%62) ve Sonuçlarda (%42) daha düşük bir etkinlik düzeyi olduğu belirlenmiştir. Dolayısıyla bu çalışmaya konu olan korunan alanların yönetim etkinlik düzeyinin yeterli olmadığı söylenebilir. Bu sonuçta başta yeterli sayıda ve nitelikte personel yetersizliği olmak üzere mevzuat, bütçe/finansman, koordinasyon gibi birçok konuda yaşanan yetersizliklerin etkili olduğu saptanmıştır. Sonuç olarak, Türkiye’deki korunan alanların sürdürülebilir yönetimini sağlamak amacıyla yönetim etkinlik düzeyinin artırılması ve mevcut sorunların çözümü için gerekli çalışmaların kararlılıkla yapılması gerektiği belirlenmiştir.

Beyond Protected Areas: Assessing Management Effectiveness of a Ramsar Site in Nepal

Ramsar Sites, wetlands of international importance, are an international category of protected wetland areas recognized under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Protected areas around the world are not achieving the conservation objectives for which they were established, often due to a lack in effective management practices. Hence, protected area management effectiveness and its assessments are crucial elements of achieving responsive and pro-active management. Ramsar Sites that are not recognized as a protected area under the national park and wildlife conservation act in Nepal are often ignored for such assessments and receive little attention in terms of conservation and management. This study aimed to fill this gap by assessing Jagadishpur Reservoir Ramsar Site, which falls into the above category. The Ramsar Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool was used to assess the management effectiveness. Transformed into the global standard reporting format, the overall management effectiveness was 0.27 on a 0 to 1 scale. This score is considered to be in an inadequate range, requiring significant conservation intervention from government with support from conservation partners. This first assessment of Ramsar Site outside of protected area in Nepal and its comparison to global and European regional-level assessments provides the benchmark for future evaluation to track progress in management effectiveness. In conclusion, Ramsar Sites outside formally protected areas are often neglected and intermittent projects, and ad hoc implementation of small-scale activities seems inadequate to improve management effectiveness.

Opportunities and Barriers to Monitoring and Evaluating Management Effectiveness in Protected Areas within the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Region, South Africa

Protected areas (PAs) that are not effectively managed will not contribute meaningfully to the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework Target 3, which aims to ensure that a minimum of 30 per cent of terrestrial, inland water, coastal and marine areas are effectively conserved and managed. Our study examined the monitoring and evaluation of protected area management effectiveness (PAME) as part of an adaptive management process in the Kruger to Canyons (K2C) Biosphere Region in South Africa. Our mixed methods approach, using online questionnaires, interviews, and focus groups, revealed that most PA managers in the network were familiar with the concept of adaptive management. The most widely used PAME evaluation tool used in the region was the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT). Some PAs did not use a formal tool but gathered scientific data using methods such as game counts and vegetation surveys to judge management effectiveness. Additionally, several managers that did not use a formal tool mentioned that they were constrained by time, staff capacity or budget. The introduction of a simpler tool for managers that are time- or resource-constrained or who are working in a newly declared or in-process PA may improve PAME evaluation within the network. We suggest that there is a need for improved communication, co-learning, and information sharing regarding PAME evaluation tools.

Protected area management effectiveness and COVID-19: The case of Plitvice Lakes National Park, Croatia.

Post-pandemic recovery of PA requires prioritisation risk framework to identify specific objectives that should be addressed first and which require additional effort or funding. Facing a crisis PA will allocate financial resources in a way that sustains primary functions such as conservation until negative trends change, or at least until financial resources become available. PAs require a paradigm shift, which includes tailoring of financial mechanisms to practical and policy purposes, effective allocation of financial resources, and responsible tourism recovery plans that capture the value and efforts of conservation through tourism and investments in nature-based solutions for sustainable tourism within PA.

Linking workforce capacity development with protected area management effectiveness assessments

Linking workforce capacity development with protected area management effectiveness assessments

EFFECTIVENESS OF MANAGEMENT IN NATURAL PROTECTED AREAS IN THE NORTHERN AMAZON OF ECUADOR

This research aimed to describe and evaluate the Management Effectiveness of protected areas in the Northern Amazon of Ecuador in relation to the areas of context management, planning, inputs, processes and outputs, to establish challenges, respectively. For developing this study, different methodologies were used; with respect to the diagnosis of the current situation of the protected areas, bibliographic review and gray literature techniques were applied. Consequently, to evaluate Management Effectiveness, interviews with semi-structured questions were conducted to learn about the achievements and progress in management activities and processes, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the protected areas. Finally, to establish the main challenges faced in the management of protected areas, an expert judgment validation technique was carried out, mainly comprised of teachers, researchers and students related to the topic. The main results indicate that the Management Effectiveness of the six protected areas studied are in the satisfactory and very satisfactory range. However, there are specific problems in certain protected areas, such as the availability of financial resources to meet all the needs of the protected areas in terms of personnel capacity and establishment of infrastructure and equipment. Finally, the study concludes that Limoncocha Biological Reserve (91.52%), Yasuní National Park (83.62%) and Cuyabeno Wildlife Production Reserve (91.37%) have the best management performance, which means that their management effectiveness is very satisfactory and therefore allows them to fully meet their creation objectives.

Use of the IMET tool in the evaluation of protected area management effectiveness in Central Africa

Protected areas play a paramount role in counteracting the negative effects of human activity on the environment. Without good management effectiveness they might not be able to fulfill their mission.The tools for management effectiveness assessments that are currently most widely used struggle to provide sufficient depth of analysis, present the situation with sufficient breadth of indicators, provide necessary objectivity in identifying challenges during the assessment, and suggesting possible paths for improvement.The Integrated Management Effectiveness Tool (IMET), a novel tool for management effectiveness, is introduced in the article. The purpose of the article is to show that IMET offers instruments for a more in-depth analysis when compared to other protected areas management effectiveness assessment methodologies. Furthermore, the article demonstrates how the introduction of instruments that aid in decision-making and encourage a results-oriented approach can be particularly beneficial in enhancing managerial effectiveness. Additionally, it is asserted that IMET enhances planning and monitoring by incorporating the necessary components into a system of Planning, Monitoring, and Evaluation.IMET has been tested in the field. Ten protected areas from Central Africa (CA) were selected and the tool demonstrated good properties in discriminating between well-performing protected areas and those with a room for improvement. The initial results have pointed to challenges in the management effectiveness dimensions of inputs and process that the studied protected areas are facing.In the long-run IMET is expected to support transition from merely routine management to results-oriented management of protected areas.

Management effectiveness and deforestation in protected areas of the Brazilian Amazon

Management effectiveness and deforestation in protected areas of the Brazilian Amazon

ЕФЕКТИВНІСТЬ УПРАВЛІННЯ ПРИРОДООХОРОННИМИ ТЕРИТОРІЯМИ І РОЛЬ ФУНКЦІОНАЛЬНОГО ЗОНУВАННЯ В МЕТОДИКАХ ЇЇ ОЦІНЮВАННЯ

The article aims to define the role of functional zoning in the effective management of protected areas and to analyze the main methods of assessing the protected area (PA) management effectiveness. The research was performed using general scientific research methods. Methods and factors that should be taken into account when developing functional zoning are highlighted. The significant potential for the use of functional zoning to improve PA’s management is pointed out, in particular, through methodological improvement, implementation of international experience, including IUCN recommendations, and ensuring the balance between zones. The analysis of the basic methods of protected areas management effectiveness is carried out. The role of spatial organization and functional zoning in achieving high-performance indicators of PAs management in protected areas management effectiveness assessments is indicated. For the first time, the peculiarities of the integration of the indicators of the criterion of functional zoning into the methodology of assessing the effectiveness of management of PAs and the need for its wider implementation in these methodologies are identified.

Status and distribution of hoolock gibbon in the newly established Indawgyi Biosphere Reserve: Implication for protected area management

Protected areas are an important tool for conserving biodiversity, if they are managed appropriately. The effectiveness of protected area management can be evaluated by understanding the conservation status of indicator species. Here, we investigate the Vulnerable eastern hoolock gibbon Hoolock leuconedys in forest blocks in Indawgyi Biosphere Reserve, Myanmar. We assess the species’ status, the influence of human disturbance and topographic factors and evaluate the reserves management. Surveys of gibbons were undertaken between October 2018 and May 2019 using an auditory sampling technique at 59 sites, covering 95 km 2 . We applied Distance Sampling techniques to estimate the number and density of gibbon groups and investigate if gibbon density were influenced by landscape and human activities. We estimated average gibbon density to be 0.71 groups per km 2 . Our results suggests that Indawgyi Biosphere Reserve holds a generally low density of eastern hoolock gibbon in Myanmar, compared to other similar sites in the region. Gibbon density was influence negatively by slope and elevation and positively by distance from villages. The current management interventions in Indawgyi Biosphere Reserve are not sufficient to conserve gibbons and reducing human disturbance is a conservation priority. We make management recommendations to improve protection of the gibbons, as well as other wildlife species.

BREMi—A New Tool for the Evaluation of UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Management Effectiveness: Case-study in the Arab Man and Biosphere (ArabMAB) Regional Network

Scholars and practitioners have been striving to develop straightforward and effective tools to measure protected area management effectiveness (PAME). UNESCO Biosphere Reserves (BR), with their unique functional and zonation schemes are monitored according to their compulsory 10-year Periodic Review (PR), which is useful for UNESCO’s evaluation purposes but lacks comprehensiveness and utility for adaptive management. Based on existing PAME methodologies, we develop and propose the first quantitative tool for the evaluation of BR management effectiveness, that would enhance and complement the currently used qualitative PR report, and serve the rapid evaluation needed for BR managers to monitor, evaluate, and adapt their management approach to achieve the three functions of BRs. The tool consists of 65 indicators, embodied within the 6 elements of the World Commission on Protected Areas Framework. We then tested this tool, named Biosphere Reserve Effectiveness of Management index (BREMi) to evaluate management effectiveness across the Arab Man and the Biosphere Reserve network involving 17 BRs spanning 8 countries of the Middle East and North Africa. BREMi scores ranged from 4.43 to 8.65 (on a scale between 0 and 10), with a mean of 6.31 ± 1.040. All indicators were considered valuable measures of progress by our respondents, as well as by independent experts. We discuss our findings in light of available literature concerning the Arab region and through the conceptual frames of adaptive management and resilience. Finally, we discuss where the BREMi tool would be most useful for BR management authorities in the iterative process of evaluation and adaptive management.

Defining performance thresholds for effective management of biodiversity within protected areas.

Performance thresholds are an important tool for determining successful conservation outcomes. They provide an objective means of defining good ecological condition and have been endorsed as an essential part of best practice in protected area (PA) management within the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas Standard. With a growing number of PAs attaining Green List status globally, thresholds developed by PAs on the Green List present an excellent resource with which to identify the attributes of well-defined performance thresholds. We examined 349 thresholds associated with PAs on the Green List to determine whether they were specific and measurable (i.e., factors recognized as essential for setting well-defined targets). We assessed whether thresholds were defined quantitatively and whether definitions included ambiguous terms (e.g., stable numbers). We identified six different ways thresholds were expressed and found that many thresholds were expressed as management objectives, rather than ecological condition thresholds, although this trend improved over time. Approximately one-half of the performance thresholds lacked the necessary specificity to delineate successful outcomes. Our results enabled us to develop a checklist of information required to set robust performance thresholds. Recommendations include that thresholds should be quantitatively defined, including quantitative estimates of the limits of acceptable change (LAC) around the target condition. To ensure transparency, a rationale and associated evidence should be provided to support the threshold and the LAC. When accompanied by a rationale and quantitative estimate of the current condition of the value, unambiguously defined thresholds with a quantitative LAC provide an objective means of demonstrating that successful conservation outcomes have been achieved. These recommendations will help conservation managers apply the Green List Standard and improve the measurement of conservation outcomes more broadly.

Effectiveness of the Qilian Mountain Nature Reserve of China in Reducing Human Impacts

The management effectiveness of protected areas plays a key role in biodiversity and ecosystem services conservation. We evaluated the effectiveness of Qilian Mountain Nature Reserve (QMNR) in reducing human footprint (HF). Four dominant human activity factors, including population density, land use, road distribution, and night light, were incorporated for HF mapping. Comparisons of the HF value between inside and outside QMNR and its four functional zones were conducted. The results show that both the HF inside and outside of QMNR were increasing, but the difference between them was increasing, indicating partial management effectiveness. The north part of the central reserve has a good effect in reducing human impacts, while the effectiveness was poor at both ends of the reserve. The HF value of the most strictly managed core and buffer zones increased by 10.50 and 6.68%, respectively, for 2010–2020. The QMNR was effective in controlling population density and land use, but ineffective in reducing road construction, mining, and construction of hydropower facilities.

Are Afrotropical Protected Areas Effective in Increasing Waterbird Richness and Diversity? A Case Study from South Sudan (East Africa)

In many tropical areas of high conservation concern there is still no evidence on the effectiveness of protected areas in protecting specific components of biodiversity. Here, to assess the management effectiveness of protected areas, we carried out a field sampling design for collecting data on waterbird communities within the Nibule National Park (South Sudan), a poorly-known hot-spot of biodiversity, and in the surrounding buffer zone. All the metrics of richness (absolute species richness, Margalef index, Chao-1) and diversity were significantly higher for bird communities inhabiting the national park, when compared to the buffer zone. Evenness was predictably lower in the national park when compared to the buffer zone, probably due to the large numbers of rare species that were observed in the park’s richer communities, thus increasing the differences in relative frequencies between species. The diversity profiles highlighted this pattern, with more sloping curves in the park sites, evidencing a role of protected area management in positively affecting the bird community structure. Our data provide the first evidence for a poorly-known area of high conservation concern on the effective role played by a National Park in maintaining high values of richness and diversity, at least for wetland-related birds.

Managing cumulative impacts and protected areas in Antarctica: what can we learn from the rest of the world?

For more than 20 years Antarctic Treaty Parties have been discussing how to appropriately manage cumulative impacts in the continent. Preventing cumulative impacts requires the fluent exchange of information to enable proper and timely assessment of, and response to, the impacts that result from multiple activities, undertaken by multiple stakeholders and supervised by different Parties. This is a particular challenge for the effective management of Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs), as a lack of coordination may potentially put at risk the fulfillment of their conservation objectives. Here we suggest that incorporating lessons learnt from protected areas management elsewhere might improve the effectiveness of ASPAs and provide valuable experiences and insights on how to better manage cumulative impacts in the rest of the continent. Key concepts to incorporate in Antarctica’s environmental management toolbox include (1) the notion of adaptive management, which is a cornerstone of protected areas management effectiveness elsewhere, and (2) the need of empowering protected area managers, which are a key (but often missing) element to ensure local compliance with management plans, co-ordinate on site activities, facilitate exchange of information, promote cooperation and manage conflicts.

How do the surrounding areas of national parks work in the context of landscape fragmentation? A case study of 159 protected areas selected in 11 EU countries

Europe has unique natural values but also has the highest level of ecosystem fragmentation. Evaluating the effectiveness of protected area management is becoming an increasingly common practice. Our main goal was to assess the dynamics of LULC changes in the buffer zones of 159 national parks in 11 selected European countries on the basis of the CORINE Land Cover database in the period from 1990 to 2018. We used five landscape metrics in order to investigate whether high natural and landscape values in the areas surrounding national parks affect the degree and rate of landscape fragmentation and isolation. We checked the statistical significance of the differences in the measured values among different distances to parks (1, 2 and 3 km) in different years and countries using the two-way ANOVA test. Furthermore, the classical principal component analysis method was applied to measure data grouped by country and then averaged by year and distance factor. We showed that high natural and landscape values in the surrounding areas of national parks affect the degree and rate of landscape fragmentation. The patch density index shows an evident increase, both in dynamic terms (1990–2018) and, mainly, in the spatial aspect. In 2018, there was an increasing rate of the patch density index of approximately 5–7% compared to that in 1990. It should be kept in mind that management efforts focused on the buffer zones of national parks may have limited success. Undoubtedly, the obtained results will contribute to the development of landscape ecology and spatial developments in the context of the effective management of national parks and their surroundings.

Southeast Asian protected areas are effective in conserving forest cover and forest carbon stocks compared to unprotected areas

Protected areas aim to conserve nature, ecosystem services, and cultural values; however, they have variable success in doing so under high development pressure. Southeast Asian protected areas faced the highest level of human pressure at the turn of the twenty-first century. To estimate their effectiveness in conserving forest cover and forest carbon stocks for 2000–2018, we used statistical matching methods to control for the non-random location of protected areas, to compare protection against a matched counterfactual. We found Southeast Asian protected areas had three times less forest cover loss than similar landscapes without protection. Protected areas that had completed management reporting using the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT) conserved significantly more forest cover and forest carbon stocks than those that had not. Management scores were positively associated with the level of carbon emissions avoided, but not the level of forest cover loss avoided. Our study is the first to find that METT scores could predict the level of carbon emissions avoided in protected areas. Given that only 11% of protected areas in Southeast Asia had completed METT surveys, our results illustrate the need to scale-up protected area management effectiveness reporting programs to improve their effectiveness for conserving forests, and for storing and sequestering carbon.

Identifying the characteristics of conservation areas that appeal to potential flagship campaign donors

AbstractThe conservation flagship approach is a valuable tool for raising funds and awareness, but species-based campaigns have been criticized for providing little benefit to wider biodiversity. One possible solution is to use conservation areas as flagships, but we lack data on the types of area that most appeal to potential donors. Here, we used an online choice experiment involving hypothetical overseas conservation areas to investigate how respondents value a series of conservation area attributes. We calculated the average willingness to pay for each attribute and assessed preference heterogeneity. Our results suggest that community ownership is valued the most, followed by the presence of threatened bird species, low current funding in the conservation area, the presence of charismatic mammals, and charity ownership. Respondents could be divided into three groups, based on their education, environmental organization membership and income. The group of respondents who were less wealthy and were members of environmental organizations were not willing to pay for this kind of conservation action, suggesting that flagship area campaigns targeted at them should encourage other types of involvement. The other two groups, which included respondents who were less engaged in conservation (neither group included environmental organization members, with one group less wealthy and less educated, and the other wealthier), found community ownership particularly appealing, suggesting that many potential donors may be driven by social concerns. This is a key finding and suggests flagship conservation areas could attract a new audience of donors, helping to support current global efforts to increase the management effectiveness, connectivity and extent of protected areas and land under other effective area-based conservation measures.