Design Of Protected Areas Research Articles

The Long-Lasting Territories of Forest Apex Predators Sustain Diverse Bird Communities throughout the Year

Apex predators, such as raptors, are used as surrogates to attain conservation objectives; however, their presence in a particular area does not necessarily mean long-term occurrence. Here we used data on long-lasting (20–40 years) territories of two generalist raptors: the diurnal Northern goshawk and the nocturnal Ural owl in deciduous and coniferous forests of southern Poland to assess their role as hotspots of bird diversity. Species richness and abundance of birds were much higher in the long-lasting territories of both apex predators than in random never-occupied sites and this pattern was common for breeding and wintering periods. These differences were more pronounced in deciduous than coniferous stands. Rare bird species (e.g., annexed in the Bird Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the conservation of wild birds such as some woodpeckers and flycatchers) were found to be particularly associated with long-lasting territories of raptors. Long-lasting territories were also characterized by greater forest habitat quality (e.g., higher number of old trees and deadwood) with lower management intensity. These results strongly point to the role of long-lasting territories of raptors as surrogates of biodiversity. Such territories, if known in forests, could be excellent for the designation of protected areas or logging there should at least be reduced to allow for the continuous breeding of apex predators and associated bird assemblages.

Assessing protected area’s carbon stocks and ecological structure at regional-scale using GEDI lidar

Protected areas (PAs) serve as a critical strategy for protecting natural resources, conserving biodiversity, and mitigating climate change. While there is a critical need to guide area-based conservation efforts, a systematic assessment of PA effectiveness for storing carbon stocks has not been possible due to the lack of globally consistent forest biomass data. In this study, we present a new methodology utilizing forest structural information and aboveground biomass density (AGBD) obtained from the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) mission. We compare PAs with similar, unprotected forests obtained through statistical matching to assess differences in carbon storage and forest structure. We also assess matching outcomes for a robust and minimally biased way to quantify PA efficacy. We find that all analyzed PAs in Tanzania possess higher biomass densities than their unprotected counterfactuals (24.4% higher on average). This is also true for other forest structure metrics, including tree height, canopy cover, and plant area index (PAI). We also find that community-governed PAs are the most effective category of PAs at preserving forest structure and AGBD – often outperforming those managed by international or national entities. In addition, PAs designated under more than one entity perform better than the PAs with a single designation, especially those with multiple international designations. Finally, our findings suggest that smaller PAs may be more effective for conservation, depending on levels of connectivity. Taken together, these findings support the designation of PAs as an effective means for forest management with considerable potential to protect forest ecosystems and achieve long-term climate goals.

Suitability of Natura 2000 sites for threatened freshwater species under projected climate change

Abstract As part of the world's largest coordinated network of protected areas, Natura 2000, European Union member states designate special areas of conservation (SACs) to maintain or achieve favourable conservation status for imperilled aquatic species listed under Annex II of the Habitats Directive. Long‐term suitability of SAC habitats is potentially challenged by continuing climate change. To examine this emerging threat to aquatic species conservation, the habitat suitability of designated SACs (n = 8,221) for 24 Central European freshwater species (18 teleosts, two lampreys, two crayfish and two bivalves) was assessed under current and projected end‐of‐century climate using environmental niche models calibrated on species occurrences reported under the Habitats Directive (n = 33,995). Potential future conditions included three climate‐change scenarios representing a gradient from effective climate protection measures to a worst‐case warming scenario. Habitat suitability of SACs was consistently calculated as high under present climate but projected to decline severely for two‐thirds of the species under future climate conditions, with the magnitude of decline generally paralleling that of projected climate change. Under high emission scenarios, one third to more than half of the species were predicted to face unsuitable conditions in ≥75% of SACs. Predicted change in habitat suitability varied across biogeographical regions, with Alpine SACs often undergoing lower or no decline in predicted suitability. Given the discrepancy between the location of currently designated SACs and predicted areas of suitable habitat under projected end‐of‐century climate, climate change can be expected to undermine the long‐term effectiveness of currently protected areas. Fostering climate resilience of freshwater habitats within SACs, restoring stream connectivity among SACs, assisted migration to newly suitable SACs where natural dispersal is not possible, as well as designation of new protected areas within climate refugia represent key actions to overcome this potential future conservation gap.

The impact of national park and UNESCO world heritage site designations on visit intentions: evidence from a randomised experiment

Existing research finds inconclusive evidence of tourism benefits of designating new National Parks (NP) and UNESCO World Heritage sites (WHS). This research advances this ongoing discussion by using a randomised experiment to test causal effects of these common protected area designations on future visit intention among domestic tourists in Australia. It also tests for moderating effects exerted by tourist beliefs and advertising strategy. The study finds that NP and WHS declarations significantly increase the likelihood of visitation, but the added value of declaring a WHS above NP is insignificant on a domestic tourism market. Tourists’ attitudes towards protected areas significantly moderate these effects, whereas effects related to advertising strategy are negligible. The paper makes significant contributions because it is the first in this area to: (a) use randomisation in the design to produce robust causal conclusions; (b) compare NP and WHS designations; and (c) scrutinise the role of advertising strategy.

Reference genome of the Monkeyface Prickleback, Cebidichthys violaceus.

Pricklebacks (Family Stichaeidae) are generally cold-temperate fishes most commonly found in the north Pacific. As part of the California Conservation Genomics Project (CCGP), we sequenced the genome of the Monkeyface Prickleback, Cebidichthys violaceus, to establish a genomic model for understanding phylogeographic patterns of marine organisms in California. These patterns, in turn, may inform the design of marine protected areas using dispersal models based on forthcoming population genomic data. The genome of C. violaceus is typical of many marine fishes at less than 1 Gb (genome size = 575.6 Mb), and our assembly is near-chromosome level (contig N50 = 1 Mb, scaffold N50 = 16.4 Mb, BUSCO completeness = 93.2%). Within the context of the CCGP, the genome will be used as a reference for future whole genome resequencing projects, enhancing our knowledge of the population structure of the species and more generally, the efficacy of marine protected areas as a primary conservation tool across California's marine ecosystems.

Influence of landscape and connectivity on anuran conservation: population viability analyses to designate protected areas

AbstractThreatened species with restricted ranges are at risk from habitat fragmentation and loss, which amplifies genetic bottleneck and impacts of small changes to their environments. Ecological models including population viability analyses (PVAs) can predict the trajectory of populations in a way that is not invasive or detrimental to the study species. They can therefore be a vital tool in modeling populations for conservation purposes. Although habitat suitability models have been used in studies to suggest areas for protected area designation, PVAs are generally not used in this regard.Dryophytes suweonensisandDryophytes flaviventrisare two threatened treefrog species endemic to the Korean Peninsula. The two species face threats of habitat loss and degradation and predation by invasive species among others. We used an integrated modeling approach combining ecological niche, connectivity, and PVAs in Vortex to determine the likelihood of extinction of each species under baseline and protected area designation scenarios. Designation scenarios were simulated in Vortex through halting future reduction in carrying capacity (halting future degradation to sites through protected area status), reducing effects of catastrophes (mitigating the effects of drought), and reducing mortality rates (controlling invasive predator populations and ex situ raising of tadpoles to maturity). We classified the combination of these management efforts as “active management” as opposed to “no management,” which is currently being practiced. We additionally used a stepwise approach to determine designation priority of individual patches. Under current conditions (no management), the resulting effective metapopulations after 100 years were 167 ± 325 individuals with an 86.5% extinction probability forD. suweonensisand 165 ± 200 individuals with a 90.3% extinction probability forD. flaviventris. Under active management of all sites (93 sites covering 426.9 km2), the extinction probability was 0% for both species with significantly increased metapopulation sizes, 15 910 ± 2855 forD. suweonensis, and 4400 ± 874 forD. flaviventris. Determining designation priority can inform the regulatory bodies on which habitat to designate and whether active or passive management should be applied. Without intervention, these species will be likely to face imminent extinction. In addition to being useful for government‐imposed conservation management, our study can be followed by future studies as a methodology for prioritizing sites for protected area designation.

Coupling future climate and land‐use projections reveals where to strengthen the protection of Mediterranean Key Biodiversity Areas

AbstractIdentifying sites that are both important for biodiversity and likely to be heavily affected by anthropogenic pressures in the future is crucial to settle priorities in the implementation of conservation measures, such as the designation of new protected areas. Although assessing the exposure of terrestrial Key Biodiversity Areas to global change would support such identification, it has never been performed to our knowledge. In addition, previous exposure assessments have been limited to few metrics of climate change and have not considered other global change components. Here, we assess the extent to which terrestrial (including inland water) Key Biodiversity Areas are exposed to future climate change and land‐use modifications in 29 countries of the Mediterranean region, and identify countries where additional protection efforts are most needed. To this end, we calculated two local and two regional exposure metrics using projections of climate and land‐use for late 21st century under four scenarios that were used in the sixth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (SSP1‐2.6, SSP2‐4.5, SSP3‐7.0, and SSP5‐8.5). These four exposure metrics were subsequently combined into an exposure index ranking sites from least to most exposed to climate and land‐use changes. We highlight that the most exposed non‐protected Key Biodiversity Areas are located in countries where the protection of this network is lowest (i.e., high number and percentage of non‐protected sites). We also found that Key Biodiversity Areas were overall more exposed than the rest of the study zone and that the sites most in need of conservation actions were similar across future scenarios. Our study reinforces the pressing necessity to strengthen and extend conservation measures in Mediterranean Key Biodiversity Areas, especially in Middle‐East and Maghreb countries whose Key Biodiversity Areas are both at risk to be strongly affected by anthropogenic pressures and insufficiently protected.

Movement patterns analysis as a tool in Fully Protected Areas design: Influence of relocations on travelled distances of Palinurus elephas (Fabr. 1787) in Sardinian FPAs (central-western Mediterranean)

Effectiveness of restocking programs in Marine Fully Protected Areas' (FPAs) can be highly affected by the movement behavior of the species to protect. We analyzed the data of 744 Palinurus elephas specimens tagged, relocated inside 12 FPAs, established in the seas surrounding Sardinia (central-western Mediterranean), and then recaptured. The overall aims were to characterize the individuals' movements after the relocation and to discuss strengths and weaknesses of the current FPAs' design. Almost 80% of tagged individuals travelled progressively increasing distances, as a function of the release distance, up to a maximum value of 11,500 m. Then, for larger release distances, individuals' mobility appeared reduced and more chaotic. A similar trend was found analyzing the distances travelled with respect to the FPAs with the highest number of recaptured individuals and to the size. These results allow to establish a threshold limit of the release distance, to take into account when designing FPAs, as a useful tool to keep a portion of the individuals into FPAs’ borders, in order to both preserve the species and guarantee a spillover of individuals in the commercial areas.

Reference genome of the Woolly Sculpin, Clinocottus analis.

Sculpins (Family Cottidae) are generally cold-temperate intertidal reef fishes most commonly found in the North Pacific. As part of the California Conservation Genomics Project (CCGP), we sequenced the genome of the Woolly Sculpin, Clinocottus analis, to establish a genomic model for understanding phylogeographic structure of inshore marine taxa along the California coast. These patterns, in turn, should further inform the design of marine protected areas using dispersal models based on genomic data. The small genome of C. analis is typical of marine fishes at less than 1 Gb (genome size = 538 Mb), and our assembly is near-chromosome level (contig N50 = 9.1 Mb, scaffold N50 = 21 Mb, BUSCO completeness = 97.9%). Within the context of the CCGP, the Woolly Sculpin genome will be used as a reference for future whole-genome resequencing projects aimed at enhancing our knowledge of the population structure of the species, and efficacy of marine protected areas across the state.

Residence, activity patterns and behaviour of the giant mottled eel Anguilla marmorata in two freshwater protected areas in the Philippines

Abstract Despite the giant mottled eel Anguilla marmorata being a widely distributed and locally exploited species throughout the Indo Pacific region, understanding of its life history, behaviour and movement ecology remains limited. Knowledge of animal spatial ecology is essential for the effective design and siting of aquatic protected areas. In the current study, acoustic telemetry was used to quantify residence and explore the activity patterns and behaviour of A. marmorata (n = 68) in two freshwater protected areas (FPAs) for the first time in the Cagayan River Basin, Philippines. The results demonstrated that FPAs of only 1 km length provided refuge for A. marmorata for an average of 25–26% of the tracked period. Residence and activity patterns varied with habitat type. In pool and riffle habitat, activity reduced with increased river flow, and eel, particularly larger individuals, were more strongly nocturnal than those in the deep pooled, slow flowing habitat. Typhoon events displaced many individuals, particularly in the pool and riffle habitat, with only 3% returning to the FPA within the study. Findings are discussed within the context of selecting FPA sites to optimize eel protection within catchments experiencing high non‐selective fisheries exploitation and other threats.

Projected bioclimatic distributions in Nearctic Bovidae signal the potential for reduced overlap with protected areas.

Assumptions about factors such as climate in shaping species' realized and potential distributions underlie much of conservation planning and wildlife management. Climate and climatic change lead to shifts in species distributions through both direct and indirect ecological pressures. Distributional shifts may be particularly important if range overlap is altered between interacting species, or between species and protected areas. The cattle family (Bovidae) represents a culturally, economically, and ecologically important taxon that occupies many of the world's rangelands. In contemporary North America, five wild bovid species inhabit deserts, prairies, mountains, and tundra from Mexico to Greenland. Here, we aim to understand how future climate change will modify environmental characteristics associated with North American bovid species relative to the distribution of extant protected areas. We fit species distribution models for each species to climate, topography, and land cover data using observations from a citizen science dataset. We then projected modeled distributions to the end of the 21st century for each bovid species under two scenarios of anticipated climate change. Modeling results suggest that suitable habitat will shift inconsistently across species and that such shifts will lead to species‐specific variation in overlap between potential habitat and existing protected areas. Furthermore, projected overlap with protected areas was sensitive to the warming scenario under consideration, with diminished realized protected area under greater warming. Conservation priorities and designation of new protected areas should account for ecological consequences of climate change.

An ethnogeomorphic case study of conservation practices in Southeast Brazil

Controversy and conflict surround the design and implementation of protected areas in tropical forests in Brazil. This case study applies an ethnogeomorphic perspective to relate local understandings of landscape to conservation goals in a protected area in Rio de Janeiro State. Externally imposed environmental protection areas fail to incorporate understandings of local farmer practices that shaped the landscape notionally being protected. Rather, a focus on reafforestation and technocentric farming techniques ignores flexible and adaptive land use practices in managing the protected area. Findings show that ethnogeomorphic research that generates multiple readings of landscapes could support more inclusive, locally informed conservation programmes.

What limits Muslim communities’ access to nature? Barriers and opportunities in the United Kingdom

Recreation in protected areas can greatly contribute to health and wellbeing, but there exist significant demographic disparities in protected area use across Europe and North America. Minority ethnic groups, in particular, are often underrepresented in protected areas due to a variety of cultural, economic, and discriminatory barriers. Muslims are one of the fastest growing minority ethnic communities in Western countries but have received little study in the context of protected areas. More research is therefore needed to understand protected area exclusion as experienced by Muslim communities. Through 14 in-depth interviews with Muslim community leaders in the United Kingdom, we explored the socio-cultural barriers and opportunities that contribute to the accessibility of protected areas for Muslims. As the majority of our participants were women, this study addresses the underrepresentation of diverse female voices in research on Muslims and leisure and foregrounds Muslim women as agents in their recreational lives. We found that a wide variety of factors can inhibit access, cumulatively resulting in several layers of exclusion. Primary barriers included a lack of inclusive imagery, insufficient facilities for social gathering, prior instances of discrimination, the perceived whiteness of protected areas, and unfamiliarity with these spaces. Several barriers related to the wilderness ideology that is embedded across many aspects of protected area marketing, design, and management as it does not embrace collectivist aspects of Muslim cultures. The level of “naturalness” associated with protected areas, however, did not emerge as a barrier. We also identified many opportunities, including the stewardship role of humans depicted within Islam. Lastly, we discuss the management implications for protected areas that emerge from our results. This research demonstrates that to foster a sense of belonging for Muslim communities, protected area managers must consider many socio-cultural dimensions of accessibility, holistically engage with Muslim communities, and embrace diverse worldviews relating to the human–nature relationship.

Reference Genome of the Black Surfperch, Embiotoca jacksoni (Embiotocidae, Perciformes), a California Kelp Forest Fish That Lacks a Pelagic Larval Stage.

Surfperches (Family Embiotocidae) are viviparous temperate reef fishes that brood their young. This life history trait translates into limited dispersal, strong population structure, and an unusually strong potential for local adaptation in a marine fish. As part of the California Conservation Genomics Project (CCGP), we sequenced the genome of the Black Surfperch, Embiotoca jacksoni, to establish a genomic model for understanding phylogeographic patterns of marine organisms in California. These patterns, in turn, may inform the design of marine protected areas using dispersal models based on genomic data. The genome of E. jacksoni is typical of marine fishes at less than 1Gb (genome size = 635 Mb), and our assembly is near-chromosome level (contig N50 = 6.5Mb, scaffold N50 = 15.5 Mb, BUSCO = 98.1%). Within the context of the CCGP, the genome will be used as a reference for future whole genome resequencing projects aimed at enhancing our knowledge of the population structure of the species, and efficacy of Marine Protected Areas across the state.

Satellite Telemetry Elucidates Migratory Pathways and Foraging Areas for Hawksbill Sea Turtles, Eretmochelys imbricata, in the Caribbean

Adult female sea turtles are highly migratory, moving between foraging and nesting areas that can be thousands of kilometers apart. Conserving sea turtles and their habitats therefore depends on knowledge of space use across these migration-linked environments. Here, we describe migratory behavior of hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata), a globally imperiled species. We used satellite telemetry to characterize the movements of females from nesting areas in Jamaica (n = 4) and Antigua (n = 4), West Indies, over 1998–2001. We mapped migrations and summarized space use during inter-nesting and foraging periods with kernel utilization distributions (UDs) and minimum convex polygons. Seven of eight turtles made post-nesting migrations, with paths ranging 56–1324 km in length, representing straight-line displacements of 68–1206 km. Two turtles sampled in southern Jamaica made short-range migrations within southern Jamaican waters, whereas two from northern Jamaica migrated further to foraging areas in the waters of Belize and Honduras. Three migrants sampled at Long Island, Antigua migrated to St. Eustatius, St. Kitts, and Redonda, respectively, with a fourth individual remaining resident in northeastern Antigua. Inter-nesting movements observed for three turtles produced 50% UDs ranging 12–44 km2, with centroid depths between 4–13 m. Foraging UDs for seven turtles spanned 8–111 km2 and 2–161 m in depth. Our results reveal variable migratory strategies, demonstrate international connectivity between hawksbill foraging and nesting habitats, and provide important information for Caribbean conservation efforts such as the design of protected areas or fisheries policies.

Assessing Magnoliaceae through time: Major global efforts to track extinction risk status and ex situ conservation

Societal Impact StatementComprehensive Red List assessments act as valuable resources for informing protected area designations, national protected species legislation and action strategies, and international biodiversity agreements, yet they are lacking for many plant families. Magnoliaceae is one of the most comprehensively assessed families, as coordinated efforts have taken place since 2007 to assess all species in the family. Due to the many efforts to assess these species, comparisons of the assessments and ex situ data over time and an investigation of the most recent (2021) information are essential to guiding the development of national, regional, and global conservation strategies for Magnoliaceae species in a time of increased global collaboration between conservation organizations.

Rationality and effectiveness of protected areas decrease with the declining development levels of the Belt and Road Initiative Countries

Protected areas (PAs) have been considered as an effective measure of ecological conservation. Existing studies have shown that developing countries are faced with more ecological pressure than developed countries, and suggested the priority for strengthening ecological conservation in developing countries, but the rationality of designation and conservation effectiveness of PAs still remain unclear. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), covering Asia, Europe and Africa, mainly consisting of developing countries, is highly overlapped with ecological conservation priorities with high biodiversity values or facing the risk of ecological degradation. Here we assessed the rationality of PA designation by comparing them with the internationally recognized Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs), and then analyzed the conservation effectiveness from the perspective of human pressure using the data of land cover and population density. The results showed that both the rationality of designation and conservation effectiveness of PAs have a decrease with the declining Human Development Index (HDI) of countries, reflecting that the PA construction level largely depends on the national comprehensive strength. This study calls for more conservation efforts in PA construction in developing countries of the BRI, including improving the coverage rate with KBAs and reducing human pressure within the PAs, so as to make full use of PAs to avoid ecological degradation and enlarging ecological gap with developed countries.

4D marine conservation networks: Combining 3D prioritization of present and future biodiversity with climatic refugia.

Given the accelerating rate of biodiversity loss, the need to prioritize marine areas for protection represents a major conservation challenge. The three-dimensionality of marine life and ecosystems is an inherent element of complexity for setting spatial conservation plans. Yet, the confidence of any recommendation largely depends on shifting climate, which triggers a global redistribution of biodiversity, suggesting the inclusion of time as a fourth dimension. Here, we developed a depth-specific prioritization analysis to inform the design of protected areas, further including metrics of climate-driven changes in the ocean. Climate change was captured in this analysis by considering the projected future distribution of >2000 benthic and pelagic species inhabiting the Mediterranean Sea, combined with climatic stability and heterogeneity metrics of the seascape. We identified important areas based on both biological and climatic criteria, where conservation focus should be given in priority when designing a three-dimensional, climate-smart protected area network. We detected spatially concise, conservation priority areas, distributed around the basin, that protected marine areas almost equally across all depth zones. Our approach highlights the importance of deep sea zones as priority areas to meet conservation targets for future marine biodiversity, while suggesting that spatial prioritization schemes, that focus on a static two-dimensional distribution of biodiversity data, might fail to englobe both the vertical properties of species distributions and the fine and larger-scale impacts associated with climate change.

Mapping functional tree regions of the Atlantic Forest: how much is left and opportunities for conservation

SummaryMany biomes still lack an overall view of their macro-functional structure (i.e., natural biogeographical regions and zones), including the Atlantic Forest biodiversity hotspot. The effective design of protected areas depends on the spatial identification of units with ecologically distinct content, whether it be floristic, phylogenetic or functional. This study used a regionalization approach to identify the potential functional regions of the Atlantic Forest by interpolating functional data from forest remnants into the entire original occurrence area of the biome, including deforested lands. Conservation status was then estimated. Analysis of seven traits of leaf, wood, seed and plant size revealed that the biome is structured over 14 functional regions and three zones (clusters of regions). Functional regions represented specific combinations of traits rather than being characterized by extremely high or low values of a single trait. They retained an average of 29.5% of forest remnants (range: 7.63–54.66%) and 10.82% of protected areas (range: 0.35–35.78%). By analysing the functional space occupied by all regions, captured by two principal component analysis axes using the pixel-level information contained in interpolated trait maps, we showed that large parts of this space were not covered by forest remnants or protected areas and that the most represented regions had serious deficits in protected areas. Although the Serra do Mar mountain range in the south and south-east Atlantic Forest is relevant as a centre of species endemism and richness and has received considerable attention for carrying out ecological studies and creating protection areas, this range does not fully encompass the functional biodiversity of such a rich biome. Our results demonstrate the potential for combining regionalization and conservation approaches to unravel the macro-structures of biomes.

Playing Politics with Environmental Protection: The Political Economy of Designating Protected Areas

Protected areas play an important role in biodiversity conservation, but they also carry local costs in the form of constraints on natural resource extraction. We investigate how policy makers make trade-offs between national environmental benefits and local economic costs, by examining the designation of protected areas in the Brazilian Amazon. Using a regression discontinuity design, we find causal evidence that the Brazilian government systematically overdesignates protected areas in municipalities controlled by opposition mayors relative to municipalities controlled by mayors in the president’s political coalition. In addition, we find evidence that this dynamic is likely driven by the economic interests of local elites in safe districts, not by those of the municipal electorate. These results show that political considerations bias the geographic distribution of protected areas in the world’s largest rainforest.