Prospective Partners Research Articles

Non‐Advertized does not Mean Concealed: Body Odour Changes across the Human Menstrual Cycle

AbstractFemales of a number of primate species display their fertile period by behavioural and/or morphological changes. Traditionally, the fertile period in human females has been considered to be concealed. However, this presumption has rarely been tested. One of the possible mechanisms for assessing menstrual cycle phase is through the sense of smell. In this study possible changes in odour across the menstrual cycle were investigated. Samples of body odour were acquired from 12 women (aged 19–27 yr), none of whom were using hormonal contraceptives. Samples were collected using cotton pads worn in the armpit for 24 h, from the menstrual, follicular and luteal cycle phases. Our experimental sample of 42 males (age 19–34 yr) repeatedly rated these odour samples for their intensity, pleasantness, attractiveness and femininity. Raw subjective smell ratings from each man were transformed to z‐scores. Subsequently, these z‐scores were tested by the general linear mixed‐model analysis (PROC MIXED, SAS) with the female's ID nested within the subject's ID as a random factor to account for the repeated measures of the subjects. Significant changes across the cycle were found for ratings of pleasantness [F(2,689) = 702; p = 0.001], attractiveness [F(2,546) = 6.35; p = 0.002] and intensity [F(2,530) = 3.57; p = 0.028]. Odour from women in the follicular (i.e. fertile) phase was rated as the least intense and the most attractive. Subsequent post hoc analysis revealed significant differences in intensity, pleasantness and attractiveness between the menstrual phase and the follicular phase, and in pleasantness and attractiveness between the menstrual and luteal phases. Significant difference between the follicular and the luteal phase was found only for attractiveness. Our results suggest that men can potentially use smell as a mechanism for monitoring menstrual cycle phase in current or prospective sexual partners. Therefore, the fertile period in humans should be considered non‐advertized, rather than concealed.

KORUS FTA: A Mysterious Beginning and an Uncertain Future

ASIANPERSPECTIVE, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2006, pp. 175-187. KORUS FTA: A MYSTERIOUS BEGINNING AND AN UNCERTAIN FUTURE* Wonhyuk Lim Despite the enthusiasm exhibited by the chief negotiators on both sides on February 2, 2006, the official launch of negotia­ tions for a Korea-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA) came as a surprise to many Koreans. In their view, it represented at best a puzzling move and at worst an abrupt about-face by South Korea's Roh Moo-hyun government. In 2003 and 2004, the Roh government made efforts to strike "a grand social bargain" between business and labor, combining social cohesion with economic liberalization. The polder model of the Netherlands was held up as a possible benchmark.* 1 More recently, the government made "bipolarization," or increasing eco­ nomic and social inequality, a major economic issue, addressing popular concerns about the impact of globalization. As for trade policy, the Roh government actively participated * An earlier version of this commentary was presented at the inaugural session of the Seoul-Washington Forum, co-hosted by the Brookings Institution and the Sejong Institute, with support from the Korea Foundation, May 1 and 2, 2006, Washington, D.C. The complete transcript of the forum is available at www.brookings.edu/comm/events/20060501seoul.htm. 1. See, for instance, the Blue House Briefing on June 19, 2003 (in Korean). Other European countries such as Ireland and Sweden were viewed in a favorable light as well for actively responding to the challenges of globalization while maintaining social cohesion. 176 Wonhyuk Lim in the multilateral Doha Development Round (DDR) negotiations and pursued free-trade agreements in two directions. First, it negotiated essentially "exploratory" FTAs with smaller countries that had a great deal of experience with FTAs and posed little threat to Korea's vulnerable agricultural sector. As a result of these negotiations, Korea signed free trade agreements with Chile, Singapore, and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Sec­ ond, the Roh government also pursued more "strategic" FTAs with a view toward promoting peace and prosperity in Northeast Asia.2 Building on the goodwill generated by the Kim-Obuchi decla­ ration of a new partnership in October 1998, a Korea-Japan FTA received top priority. Most experts in Korea believed that this FTA would be mutually beneficial for both sides, with manageable risks for Korea's manufacturing and Japan's primary sector. By comparison, many felt that a Korea-China FTA would be detri­ mental to Korea's agricultural sector, even though it would give a significant boost to manufacturing exports.3 A Korea-U.S. FTA 2. For details on Korea's FTA strategy as of early 2005, see Wonhyuk Lim, "Economic Integration and Reconciliation in Northeast Asia: Possibilities and Limitations," in Soon-Won Park and Gi-Wook Shin, eds., Rethinking Historical Injustice in Northeast Asia (New York: Routledge, forthcoming), available at www.brookings.edu/comm/events/20060502_wonhyuk2. pdf. For reference materials on the KORUS FTA, see www.kiep.go.kr/ sub02/subl2.asp and www.keia.org/4-l-fta.html as well as http: //benmuse. typepad.com/ben_muse/ 2006 /10 / korusfta.html#more. 3. According to a 2004 study on prospective FTA partners by the Korea Institute for Industrial Economics and Technology (KIET), China ranked first in terms of economic merits, followed by Mexico, Hong Kong, the European Union (EU), and the United States. In August 2005, China expressed willingness to show flexibility with regard to rice and other "sensitive items" in FTA negotiations with Korea, presumably in exchange for a corresponding move from the Korean side with regard to China's sensitive items. Apparently concerned about the geopolitical implications of pursuing an FTA with China ahead of the United States, however, Korea decided to spurn this offer. See "S.K. Nixed Trade Deal with China under U.S. Pressure, Data Reveals," The Hankyoreh (Seoul), August 11, 2006, accessible at http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_ edition/e_business/148185.html. Although the Roh government's concern about negative U.S. reaction to a Korea-China FTA is understandable, it does not explain why Roh subsequently pushed for an FTA with the United States and failed to use China's proposed concessions...

Thalassemia Treatment and Prevention in Uva Province, Sri Lanka: A Public Opinion Survey

Due to its excessive cost thalassemia management is a major health care problem in Sri Lanka. The majority of doctors are using only desferrioxamine (DFO), in grossly inadequate doses mainly because of its unavailability. Deferiprone (L1), which is more affordable, is not used due to fear of toxicity, as previously reported. Arthropathy attributed to L1 has been observed in some patients, and has led to the discontinuation of the drug in all patients, without scientific rationale. The proposed thalassemia prevention project for Uva Province is based on prevention of marriages between carriers. This could be achieved by carrier screening and counseling of teenagers and adolescents well before they select their partners.In Sri Lanka, people find their marriage partners at their work place or universities, by themselves, or with the help of professional marriage brokers (they are called Kapuwa), through relatives and close friends. This process of finding a partner may also be helped by paper advertisements. However, in addition to the appearance and attitude of the prospective partner, the caste, social background and horoscope are major considerations in selecting a partner. Even when they select partners on their own at the work place or university, they keep these factors in the back of their minds to ensure social acceptance. Many relationships are given up due to objections and advice from parents when the caste or social background does not match. A horoscope is a written document that almost every child gets, written by a professional horoscope reader and depending on the time of birth. It is believed, according to the horoscope, that a person's attitudes, desires, future prospects of finding a suitable partner, could be predicted. It is rare to proceed with a marriage if the horoscope does not match. These customs are considered less seriously among educated people when they find their partner at the work place or university.The concept of thalassemia risk-free marriages advocates promotion of marriages where at least one partner is a non-carrier. Success of such a project could be monitored at the time of marriage. This opinion survey indicates that the public is motivated to promote carrier screening and the prevention of thalassemia.

"MAY I PLEASE PAY A HIGHER PRICE?": SUSTAINING NON-SIMULTANEOUS EXCHANGE THROUGH FREE DISPOSAL OF BARGAINING ADVANTAGE

The issue of whether or not trade can be sustained when exchange is non-simultaneous is addressed. An environment in which a buyer is exposed to the possibility that a seller will not deliver an item which has been paid for is examined. Situations of this nature often arise when consumer-to-consumer trade is negotiated via the internet. Repeated interaction between a single seller and a single buyer is modelled, assuming each has incomplete information about the type of their prospective trading partner. It is possible for an agent to be better off with less relative bargaining power. Thus, if an agent can reduce his own relative bargaining power, he may choose to do so.

Menuju Keluarga Sakinah (Membentuk Keluarga Sakinah Berdasarkan Perspektif Islam

Marriage, in Islamic teaching is one important aspect to lead a life in accordance with the religion. Beginning from marriage, a Muslim family can build their life foundation. An Islamic family has unique characteristics such as: it function as a place to cultivate love, mutual respect and a plce to perform religious practices, which in turn will bring to the family a sence of happines, peace, security and safety (sakinah mawaddah wa rahmah). “Sakinah” (meaning happines) is the terminal value of every Muslim family. As the targeted end of every married couple, Sakinah is determined by how the couple go through the process of making and running a family which include: choosing a spouse (such as important consideration to select the most prospective partner from religious perspective), straightening the intention (niat), understanding the unique psychological disposition of the partner, fulfilling the rights of family member (including children) and performing duties and obligation, choosing the best strategy for coping with family challenges and ability to family problems (family problem solving). Kata kunci: keluarga sakinah

Motivation Influences the Underestimation of Cumulative Risk

Past research has shown that people typically underestimate the cumulative risk of events. This effect has mainly been interpreted as resulting from the use of cognitive heuristics and judgment strategies, such as availability or anchoring and adjustment. The authors suggest that motivational processes can be an additional force in the generation of cumulative risk estimates. Using an experimental design, Study 1 shows that people underestimate the cumulative risk of infection with sexually transmitted diseases of appealing prospective sexual partners by using risk-irrelevant information for their judgment. Using a correlational design, Study 2 demonstrates that people underestimate the cumulative risk of being infected with a sexually transmitted disease and that commitment to the present partner is directly related to a low cumulative risk estimate as well as indirectly through its effect on the perceived risk of the present partner. Together, the two studies demonstrate that motivation influences the underestimation of cumulative risk.

Adaptive mating strategies and the problem of mate retention

"Adaptations" are evolved solutions to the problems posed by survival and reproduction. The evolutionary psychologists believe that as well as the physical adaptations so the adaptations in human mind evolved, called "strategies". The "mating strategies" are adaptive solutions to successful mating. The mating strategies, designed to preserve access to a mate by preventing encroachment of intrasexual rivals and by preventing a mate from defecting from the mateship for a prospective better partner, are called "mate guarding strategies". The previous research found that humans do use a wide variety of behavioural tactics of mate guarding, ranging from vigilance to violence. Our research group explores the type and the intensity of behavioural tactics of mate guarding used in several contexts. Presently, the link between the woman's fertility status across her menstrual cycle and the man's mate guarding is examined. Discussing the preliminary results, a more intensive man's mate guarding of his partner around the ovulation when her fertility peaks may be assumed. These outcomes could be explained as an adaptive prevention to shift in woman's preferences to increase her extra-pair sexual attempts and following to a possible genetic cuckoldry at that most fertile time.

Collaborative planning of AEC projects and partnerships

This paper discusses the development of novel methods and a platform for the support of project planning processes in Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC). Through the new approach it will be possible to systematically generate comprehensive project plans by cultivating and enacting the logic and intelligence of incremental and collaborative planning strategies. The underlying methodology treats project planning as the execution of a series of structured dialogues between prospective project partners. In the paper, the selection and preparation of a Design–Build partnership is used as an example implementation. It discusses the methodology and shows how workflow definition and enactment can be realized through the prototype platform developed in the European e-HUBs research project. The paper focuses on the first stage of the research and discusses future evaluation by domain experts to validate the approach.

Sexual conflict

Sexual conflict

Doing Business in the People’s Republic of China

A variety of barriers face foreign joint venture (JV) operators in the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Among these are issues that relate to business and investment laws and regulations, which by default include the foreign investment enterprise (FIE) business vehicles. In this context, one could argue (and legal experts tend to agree) that unless a suitable business vehicle is selected by the FIE, or if the FIE is not correctly set up, the venture may become highly vulnerable to closure and possible litigation, irrespective of whether the organization is well managed. The most likely route for international hotel executives to establish a foreign business venture in the PRC is via a JV. The key to establishing a JV is appropriately conducted business negotiations with prospective Chinese partners.

Genetic professionals' reports of nondisclosure of genetic risk information within families

Patients attending genetic clinics are often the main gatekeepers of information for other family members. There has been much debate about the circumstances under which professionals may have an obligation, or may be permitted, to pass on personal genetic information about their clients but without their consent to other family members. We report findings from the first prospective study investigating the frequency with which genetics professionals become concerned about the failure of clients to pass on such information to their relatives. In all, 12 UK and two Australian regional genetic services reported such cases over 12 months, including details of actions taken by professionals in response to the clients' failure to disclose information. A total of 65 cases of non-disclosure were reported, representing <1% of the genetic clinic consultations in the collaborating centres during the study period. These included 39 cases of the failure of parents not passing full information to their adult offspring, 22 cases where siblings or other relatives were not given information and four cases where information was withheld from partners -- including former and prospective partners. Professionals reported clients' reasons for withholding information as complex, more often citing concern and the desire to shield relatives from distress rather than poor family relationships. In most cases, the professionals took further steps to persuade their clients to make a disclosure but in no instance did the professional force a disclosure without the client's consent.

Mate choice decisions of stickleback females predictably modified by MHC peptide ligands

Sexual selection has been proposed as one mechanism to explain the maintenance of high allelic diversity in MHC genes that control the extent of resistance against pathogens and parasites in natural populations. MHC-based sexual selection is known to involve olfactory mechanisms in fish, mice, and humans. During mate choice, females of the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) use an odor-based selection strategy to achieve an optimal level of MHC diversity in their offspring, equipping them with optimal resistance toward pathogens and parasites. The molecular mechanism of odor-based mate-selection strategies is unknown. Because peptide ligands for MHC class I molecules function as individuality signals in mice, we hypothesized that female sticklebacks might assess the degree of MHC diversity of potential partners by means of the structural diversity of the corresponding peptide ligands in perceived odor signals. We show that structurally diverse MHC ligands interact with natural odors of male sticklebacks to predictably modify MHC-related mate choice. For a mating pair with suboptimal numbers of MHC alleles, peptides increase the attractiveness of male water, whereas for a mating pair with superoptimal numbers, attractiveness is decreased. Our results suggest that female sticklebacks use evolutionarily conserved structural features of MHC peptide ligands to evaluate MHC diversity of their prospective mating partners.

Dextromethorphan/Quinidine

Avanir Pharmaceuticals in the US is developing a fixed-dose combination of dextromethorphan (30 mg), a weak NMDA antagonist/sigma 1 agonist, and quinidine (30 mg), a cytochrome P450-2D6 (CYP2D6) enzyme inhibitor [AVP 923, Neurodextrade mark]. Quinidine sustains therapeutic levels of dextromethorphan over a 12-hour dosing schedule by inhibiting oxidative first-pass metabolism of the drug, and is used in the combination product at 2.5-5.0% of its normal daily therapeutic dose. A rolling NDA for the treatment of emotional lability has been initiated, and phase II trials with dextromethorphan/quinidine for the treatment of neuropathic pain have been completed. Avanir is exploring partnering opportunities for dextromethorphan/quinidine in Europe and Japan. Prospective partners would carry out development and commercialisation in the licensed territory. Additionally, a co-promotion partner for the US is sought. Avanir Pharmaceuticals sublicensed this formulation of dextromethorphan from IriSys Research and Development. Avanir has exclusive rights to develop, manufacture and market dextromethorphan/quinidine for four potential indications: emotional lability, neuropathic pain, chronic cough and weaning drug-dependent patients from narcotics and antidepressants. Avanir will make milestone payments to Irisys upon US FDA acceptance of filing, marketing approval, and royalties based on product sales. Medison Pharma (Israel) has obtained development, marketing and distribution rights to the dextromethorphan/quinidine combination for the treatment of emotional lability in patients with multiple sclerosis in Israel. Avanir will fund all clinical development of the dextromethorphan/quinidine combination for the treatment of emotional lability. The phase II clinical trials with dextromethorphan/quinidine for the treatment of neuropathic pain have been completed. Results indicated that the combination significantly improved pain scores in patients with diabetic neuropathy. Phase III trials in this indication are expected to begin in 2005. Avanir has been issued with six patents in the US regarding dextromethorphan/quinidine and has a total of 14 pending applications, 12 of which are in Europe.

The Material Returns to Partnership: The Effects of Educational Matching on Labour Market Outcomes and Gender Equality

Partnership decisions are determined in part by mutual consideration of the economic value of prospective partners. Whereas in the past this worked through property or income, the basis for assessment now derives from an individual's effective stock of human capital. This gives an indication not only of the suitability of a prospective partner but also of that person's future labour market success. However, many aspects of this are invisible to the social researcher. Using the first nine waves of the British Household Panel Survey (1991-1999), we employ an estimation procedure in which we first identify these unobserved components of human capital, then test whether they affect labour market outcomes. We find that such unobserved dimensions of human capital significantly affect wages and occupational prestige scores. This has significant implications for the balance of gender equality within partnerships.

A prospective partner

A prospective partner

White-faced capuchin monkeys show triadic awareness in their choice of allies

The social intelligence hypothesis, which holds that social challenges have selected for increased intelligence and social skills, has been supported by evidence that, in catarrhine primates, individuals know about the characteristics of groupmates' social relationships. Evidence for such ‘triadic awareness’ has not been sought for platyrrhine primates, although two platyrrhine genera, capuchins, Cebus, and squirrel monkeys, Saimiri, are among the most highly encephalized primates. We examined patterns of coalitionary recruitment in wild white-faced capuchins, C. capucinus. Analyses have shown that more dominant individuals are more likely to join aggressive coalitions than low-rankers, and that individuals preferentially support those with whom they have stronger affiliative relationships. Data from 110 fights, analysed using simulation techniques that produced distributions of results expected under null hypotheses, revealed that contestants preferentially solicited prospective coalition partners that (1) were dominant to their opponents, and (2) had better social relationships (higher ratios of affiliative/cooperative interactions to agonistic interactions) with themselves than with their opponents. Further analyses showed that soliciting dominant partners could be explained by either of two simpler rules, ‘Solicit an ally that outranks yourself’ or ‘Solicit the highest-ranking available individual’. However, soliciting partners with better social relationships appears to indicate triadic awareness, because subjects did not preferentially solicit the nearby individual with whom they shared the highest-quality social relationship. Effects of relative relationship quality on coalition solicitation decisions were independent of effects of dominance rank.

C-fos is induced in the hippocampus during consolidation of sexual imprinting in the zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata).

c-fos was used to mark regions of enhanced neuronal activity during sexual imprinting, an early learning process by which information about the prospective sexual partner is acquired and consolidated. In the present study, we demonstrate that the hippocampus, already known for its specialized spatial memory capacities in navigating pigeons and in food-storing birds, depicts a selective differential c-fos induction in a situation shown to lead to sexual imprinting, that is, exposing previously isolated male birds to a female for 1 h. c-fos induction is lateralized, the left hippocampus showing more c-fos activity than the right. Our results would indicate a role for the hippocampus in the consolidation process of imprinting, probably in the transfer of information to the other telencephalic areas that show alterations in synaptic connectivity as a result of consolidation of sexual imprinting.

The new bilateralism in the Asia Pacific

For most of the past half-century, Western Pacific countries largely eschewed preferential trade agreements. Their preferred form of trade liberalisation was unilateral action on a non-discriminatory basis. In the past four years, however, more than 20 preferential schemes involving two or more Western Pacific countries have been put forward. The new interest in bilateralism is explained by: an increasing awareness of the weakness of existing regional institutions and initiatives; perceptions of positive demonstration effects from regional agreements elsewhere; and changing configurations of domestic economic interests. Contrary to arguments that emphasise a new sense of collective identity in East Asia post-crises, as many agreements have been proposed with prospective partners outside East Asia as with other East Asian countries. The agreements will have little impact on overall trade or economic growth because they typically involve countries that are relatively insignificant economic partners for one another. By exploiting ambiguities in wto rules, however, they enable governments to exclude sensitive domestic sectors. This 'liberalisation without political pain' has potentially negative consequences for the domestic political economy equation.

Women with sickle cell trait: Reproductive decision-making

There is no universal cure at present for sickle cell disease; therefore, the only way to lessen the risk of transmission is to make informed reproductive choices. The aim of this study was to explore reproductive decision-making in women who are 'healthy carriers' of sickle cell disease. Theoretically, there are options, both in advance of conception and during pregnancy. Nonetheless, carriers may be subject to extraordinary circumstances where it is difficult to recognize options, let alone to make informed choices. Furthermore, with advancing technology and research into the genetic basis of various diseases, such circumstances may become relevant to carriers of all genetic diseases in the future. Reproductive decision-making may therefore play a larger role in tomorrow's scientifically advanced consumer society. We intended to gain insight into the issues surrounding reproductive choices of today by examining sickle cell disease as an exemplar. Thirty-five female carriers of sickle cell disease were interviewed; 34 were of either African or African Caribbean origin. This study found that in these two groups, it could be very difficult for women to talk about their carrier status with partners in advance of becoming pregnant. It was often easier to risk the chance of giving birth to an affected child than to initiate discussions which could expose them to the risk of rejection and the possible loss of opportunity to reproduce. We conclude that health professionals need to consider how carriers of sickle cell disease would proceed to discuss their status with prospective partners when genetic screening, counselling, and information are offered.

An investigation into the level and impact of merger activity amongst hospitals in the UK's National Health Service.

Since 1990 the National Health Service (NHS) has undergone a sustained period of change. This change has been necessary to prepare the NHS for the task of meeting a demand for services that continues to rise more rapidly than the availability of resources. Anecdotal evidence suggests that one of the most popular ways for trusts to improve their ability to meet demand is through mergers with other trusts. However, little rigorous research has been conducted to assess the extent or effectiveness of this strategy. A research project was, therefore, initiated to better understand the extent and impact of merger activity within the NHS. A questionnaire was developed and distributed to the chief executive, finance director, medical director and human resources director in all the 460 trusts that are currently members of the NHS confederation. In total the survey generated 459 responses out of a possible total of 1,840; an encouraging response rate of 25 per cent. The results of this research provide significant new evidence that "merger mania" has taken hold within the NHS. While 46 per cent of all responding trusts indicated that they had already merged, are actively involved in a merger, proposing to merge or are talking to prospective partners, a further 18.7 per cent of all trusts are forming strategic alliances rather than opting for a full merger. The dominant justification for merging are the beliefs that it will facilitate the reconfiguration of services and ultimately improve patient care. The paper concludes with a discussion of the significance of these results, before making recommendations with regard to their implications for future merger activity within the NHS.