Proposed Wind Farm Research Articles

Cumulative impact assessments and bird/wind farm interactions: Developing a conceptual framework

The wind power industry has grown rapidly in the UK to meet EU targets of sourcing 20% of energy from renewable sources by 2020. Although wind power is a renewable energy source, there are environmental concerns over increasing numbers of wind farm proposals and associated cumulative impacts. Individually, a wind farm, or indeed any action, may have minor effects on the environment, but collectively these may be significant, potentially greater than the sum of the individual parts acting alone. EU and UK legislation requires a cumulative impact assessment (CIA) as part of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA). However, in the absence of detailed guidance and definitions, such assessments within EIA are rarely adequate, restricting the acquisition of basic knowledge about the cumulative impacts of wind farms on bird populations. Here we propose a conceptual framework to promote transparency in CIA through the explicit definition of impacts, actions and scales within an assessment. Our framework requires improved legislative guidance on the actions to include in assessments, and advice on the appropriate baselines against which to assess impacts. Cumulative impacts are currently considered on restricted scales (spatial and temporal) relating to individual development EIAs. We propose that benefits would be gained from elevating CIA to a strategic level, as a component of spatially explicit planning.

Avian sensitivity to mortality: Prioritising migratory bird species for assessment at proposed wind farms

Wind power generation is likely to constitute one of the most extensive human physical exploitation activities of European marine areas in the near future. The many millions of migrating birds that pass these man-made obstacles are protected by international obligations and the subject of public concerns. Yet some bird species are more sensitive to bird–wind turbine mortality than others. This study developed a simple and logical framework for ranking bird species with regard to their relative sensitivity to bird–wind turbine-collisions, and applied it to a data set comprising 38 avian migrant species at the Nysted offshore wind farm in Denmark. Two indicators were selected to characterize the sensitivity of each individual species: 1) relative abundance and 2) demographic sensitivity (elasticity of population growth rate to changes in adult survival). In the case-study from the Nysted offshore wind farm, birds of prey and waterbirds dominated the group of high priority species and only passerines showed a low risk of being impacted by the wind farm. Even where passerines might be present in very high numbers, they often represent insignificant segments of huge reference populations that, from a demographic point of view, are relatively insensitive to wind farm-related adult mortality. It will always be important to focus attention and direct the resources towards the most sensitive species to ensure cost-effective environmental assessments in the future, and in general, this novel index seems capable of identifying the species that are at high risk of being adversely affected by wind farms.

Public perceptions of wind energy developments: Case studies from New Zealand

Although the public generally hold positive attitudes towards wind energy, proposals for the construction of new wind farms are often met with strong resistance. In New Zealand, where the government has recently introduced ambitious policy targets for renewable energy generation, negative perceptions of wind farms are increasingly evident and have the potential to prevent the achievement of these targets. This research sets out to examine what influences social resistance to wind farms in New Zealand. Drawing from public submissions on three wind farm proposals, a framework developed by Devine-Wright [Devine-Wright, P., 2005a. Beyond NIMBYism: towards an integrated Framework for Understanding Public Perceptions of Wind Energy. Wind Energy 8, 125–139.] was used as the basis for identification of factors affecting public perceptions of wind farms. The research found firstly that there was no apparent relationship between the proximity of submitters to a proposed wind farm and their likelihood of having a negative perception of the proposal. A wide range of factors written in submissions appeared to have affected the submitter's decision to support or oppose the wind farm proposal. Some of these were consistent with Devine-Wright's findings, but ten further factors were added to the framework to adequately cover the aspects raised in submissions. The findings have implications for the achievement of New Zealand's energy policy aspirations.

Using probability of occurrence to assess potential interaction between wind farms and a residual population of golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos in NW Spain

We evaluate the areas with potential negative impacts in a golden eagle population derived of the development of wind farms. At present, the entire golden eagle Galician population (5–6 pairs) is located within an area of about 2,000 km2. Grid squares of 10 × 10 km UTM in the province were scored for current and future wind turbine density and probability of occurrence of golden eagle. This probability was obtained using cartographic models of habitat selection for two different historic periods. Potential risk index (PRI) was calculated for each grid square by multiplying the wind turbine density score by the probability of occurrence score. With the PRIs obtained a cartographic model of potential impact of wind farms on the golden eagle population was constructed. No significant correlation was observed between current wind turbine density and the probability of occurrence of golden eagle. A significant positive correlation was observed between current and future wind turbine density and the probability of occurrence of golden eagle. The areas with highest potential risk are eastern and the central mountains of Ourense where the species breeds. The risk model presented could be applied to future wind farm proposals and monitor potential interactions of golden eagles with wind farms in the Province of Ourense.

Over the Sea and Far Away? A Consideration of the Planning, Politics and Public Perception of Offshore Wind Farms

This paper is about the politics, planning, and public perceptions associated with offshore wind farms. Although only half the applications for onshore wind farms are successful in England and Wales, the latest round of offshore applications have had far higher rates of consent. But is it simply the case that siting wind farms offshore solves the problems that onshore applications encounter? This paper argues that many of the same problems are experienced by both onshore and offshore wind farms, albeit in slightly different ways; and that these need to be addressed if the promised expansion in offshore wind is to be delivered. This paper draws together the research and evidence relating to onshore and offshore wind developments, exploring this with the emerging research on public perceptions of offshore wind farms, and initial empirical evidence from a proposed wind farm off the coast of North Wales. It concludes with some remarks about the potential for offshore wind around the UK, considers the role of spatial planning, and discusses issues for policy and planning that must be addressed if the Government's ambitious targets are to be achieved.

Map of bird sensitivities to wind farms in Scotland: A tool to aid planning and conservation

Government targets for renewable energy have led to a huge increase in wind farm proposals. Because of its high wind resource, Scotland has more proposed wind farms than any other UK country. Scotland’s upland habitats support many birds of conservation concern, leading to potential conflict with wind farms. To help reduce this conflict, a map of bird sensitivities has been created to guide the location of onshore wind farms in Scotland, based on distributions of 16 bird species of conservation priority and statutory Special Protection Areas. The likely sensitivity of each species to wind farms was assessed from literature, based on foraging ranges, collision risk and sensitivity to disturbance. This information was used to buffer species’ locations to identify areas of ‘high’ or ‘medium’ sensitivity. Individual species maps were converted to 1-km square resolution, and a composite map for all species created by selecting the highest sensitivity rating for each square. The map indicates greater bird sensitivity in northwest Scotland, particularly the Highlands, Western and Northern Isles. Overall, 37% of Scotland is classified as ‘high’, 25% as ‘medium’ and 38% as ‘low/unknown’ sensitivity. The overlap of the mapped species with proposed and existing wind farm developments was assessed and species for which cumulative effects of multiple wind farms are of particular concern identified. Within a Scottish context, bean goose, red kite and hen harrier showed the greatest overlap. Applications and limitations of the approach are discussed.

Many ways to say ‘no’, different ways to say ‘yes’: Applying Q-Methodology to understand public acceptance of wind farm proposals

This paper explores the nature of public acceptance of wind farms by investigating the discourses of support and objection to a proposed offshore scheme. It reviews research into opposition to wind farms, noting previous criticisms that this has tended to provide descriptive rather than explanatory insights and as a result, has not effectively informed the policy debate. One explanation is that much of this research has been conceived within an unreflective positivist research frame, which is inadequate in dealing with the subjectivity and value-basis of public acceptance of wind farm development. The paper takes a case study of an offshore wind farm proposal in Northern Ireland and applies Q-Methodology to identify the dominant discourses of support and objection. It is argued that this provides new insights into the nature of wind farm conflicts, points to a number of recommendations for policy, and functions as an example of how this methodology can act as a potential bridge between positivist and post-positivist approaches to policy analysis.

Strategic environmental assessment for wind farm sites

Using strategic environmental assessment, the current paper strives to assemble a site selection process for wind farms in order that suitable locations can be identified in a coherent and logical manner. Such a course of action is seen as preferable to the existing process where wind farm proposals are treated as one-off applications, with each subject to a lengthy decision process which may result in an unsuccessful outcome for one of the parties to the appraisal. Strategic environmental assessment is seen as providing a comprehensive framework for this process, enabling the decision to be made in a more efficient and environmentally sustainable manner, aiding the system by which wind farms can be sited in the least ecologically sensitive locations possible. The application of strategic environmental assessment to the siting of wind farms within County Cavan in Ireland is used to illustrate the operation of such a proposed assessment process.

Spatial association as an indicator of the potential for future interactions between wind energy developments and golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos in Scotland

Despite their environmental benefits in generating electricity without emission of ‘greenhouse’ gases, wind farms have attracted controversy with regard to their impacts on birds, especially golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos. Evidence from USA studies suggest eagle fatalities through collision with turbines may be the main potential impact whereas for breeding eagles in Scotland, displacement from wind farm areas (indirect habitat loss) may be the primary impact. In this study, we examined the co-occurrence potential for golden eagles and wind farms in Scotland by documenting the spatial association between wind farm proposals and breeding eagle territories and areas potentially suitable for non-breeding eagles. Although there were records for over 500 wind farm proposals at various stages of development, relatively few coincided with eagle territories (ca. 4% of territories had a proposal within 3 km of territory centre). Similarly, only 2% of habitat predicted to be suitable for non-breeding eagles overlapped with proposed or installed wind farm areas. Moreover, estimates of the potential for electricity generation from all wind farm proposals, with respect to government targets for renewable energy supplies, suggested most proposals were unlikely to be constructed. We conclude that in comparison with other constraints on Scotland’s golden eagles, notably persecution, wind farms should not represent a serious concern if best practice in planning their location and minimising their impact are maintained. Potential future regional pressures on breeding eagles from wind farms are highlighted, however, and uncertainty of impact with respect to displacement or collision fatalities requires continued scrutiny.

Opening address to Wind, Fire and Water: Renewable Energy and Birds

Opening address to Wind, Fire and Water: Renewable Energy and Birds

Renewable energy production issues with the Cape Cod offshore wind energy programme

This paper evaluates the first offshore wind farm proposal in the USA. It is being put forward by Cape Wind Associates, a Boston-based firm that wishes to build 170 turbines five miles offshore in Nantucket Sound. The proposed development would supply up to 95% Cape Cod's energy needs and 2% of the energy requirements for the eastern New England region, preventing the need for additional fossil fuel power plants that would pollute the environment and harm the health of New Englanders. The eco-friendly state of Massachusetts has produced much opposition to this project. Criticism of this project ranges from anticipated bird kills by the turbines to concerns about the criteria and considerations that will be used in the permit process. However, the most important issue appears to be that of visual pollution to the residents of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket. This paper examines this unique form of pollution and how reactionary not-in-my-backyard concerns can shape the debate.

05/01130 Using computational tools to factor wind into architectural environment design

Every wind power project has to be financially viable throughout its project life, from an accounting as well as from an investor's point of view. As such it is important to have a thorough and detailed understanding of the future energy output of proposed wind farms. Mr Paul van Lieshout, Wind Power Development Manager, Sinclair Knight Merz (Europe) Ltd discusses the issues.

Predicting wind output: Time dependent energy calculations

Every wind power project has to be financially viable throughout its project life, from an accounting as well as from an investor's point of view. As such it is important to have a thorough and detailed understanding of the future energy output of proposed wind farms. Mr Paul van Lieshout, Wind Power Development Manager, Sinclair Knight Merz (Europe) Ltd discusses the issues.

The Economic Impacts of a Proposed Wind Power Plant in Kittitas County, Washington State, USA

This paper is an evaluation of potential impacts of a proposed wind farm on property values, tax revenues, and the local economy. The area studied was Kittitas County, (46.59° N, 120.25° W), Washington State, USA, where a combined wind farm of 261 wind turbines, total capacity 390 MW, is proposed. Studies were conducted in that area and regarding similar areas with similar projects. Of particular importance was the visual impact of the windfarm. Details of likely local employment are given (185 full and part-time direct jobs at construction, 85 direct jobs ongoing). Financial modelling considered local and other tax revenues, and associated financial benefits and disbenefits. Studies related to both the time of construction and ongoing operation. Tax revenues from the area would increase by $2.8 million/year (11% increase), of which $693,000/y would be disbursed for immediate local services (2% increase). It was concluded that: there was no evidence for reductions in property values; tax revenues would increase with associated disbursement of benefit within the locality; and associated secondary expenditure in the locality would be significant.

“The Answer My Friend is Blowin' in the Wind”…Or is It? Successful Local Opposition to a Proposed Windfarm Development in Regional Victoria

Around the world, but particularly in Western Europe and North America, wind energy is being promoted strongly by turbine manufacturers, ‘green’ consumers, and some governments, as a significant potential alternative to electricity production from traditional, coal-fired, hydro or nuclear generating sources. As a consequence, many countries and states have embraced this technology with enthusiasm. At the same time, opposition to large-scale wind farms, especially in areas of high scenic amenity, is also growing in some countries. This article places this debate in the Australian context by focusing on renewable energy policy and successful local opposition to a proposed wind farm development near Portland, in Western Victoria. It is argued that this particular conflict has important lessons for future windfarm proposals in coastal settings elsewhere in Australia.

96/06279 Meteorological and topological factors influencing the power quality of wind turbine electricity generation from wind farms in complex terrain

The feasibility of installing a 2.5 MW wind farm within an isolated power system in Western Australia is examined. This network is at present being supplied by several diesel generators. The main design consideration is the dynamic interaction between these generators and the wind turbines. The paper begins with a discussion of the results of field tests carried out on the diesel units. The performance of these alternators under disturbance conditions is assessed and the test results are used to derive improved computer representations for the generators. The proposed wind farm employs induction generators. The behaviour of the hybrid diesel-wind turbine power system is then studied by assessing the effect of normal variations in the wind mechanical power on system frequency and voltages. It shows that the wind turbines would degrade the quality of the electrical supply by causing unacceptably large voltage and frequency excursions. Thus there is a need for fast automated control actions if the full potential of the wind farm is to be exploited. Consideration of other disturbance types also leads to this conclusion. The application of a static var compensator and upgrade of the diesel generator control systems are the two options examined. It is shown that these methods can alleviate the design problem satisfactorily.

Performance of an autonomous diesel-wind turbine power system

The feasibility of installing a 2.5 MW wind farm within an isolated power system in Western Australia is examined. This network is at present being supplied by several diesel generators. The main design consideration is the dynamic interaction between these generators and the wind turbines. The paper begins with a discussion of the results of field tests carried out on the diesel units. The performance of these alternators under disturbance conditions is assessed and the test results are used to derive improved computer representations for the generators. The proposed wind farm employs induction generators. The behaviour of the hybrid diesel-wind turbine power system is then studied by assessing the effect of normal variations in the wind mechanical power on system frequency and voltages. It shows that the wind turbines would degrade the quality of the electrical supply by causing unacceptably large voltage and frequency excursions. Thus there is a need for fast automated control actions if the full potential of the wind farm is to be exploited. Consideration of other disturbance types also leads to this conclusion. The application of a static var compensator and upgrade of the diesel generator control systems are the two options examined. It is shown that these methods can alleviate the design problem satisfactorily.

Wind Energy Resource Assessment and Feasibility Study of Wind Farm in Mustang

This study presents the wind energy resource assessment and financial analysis of a 15 MW proposed wind farm in Mustang for utility scale power generation. Hourly meteorological data at Kagbeni and Thini measured at 10 m and 20 m height from 2001 to 2005 have been analyzed and the annual average wind speed and power density 75 m above ground level at Kagbeni are 8.05 m/s and 851 W/m2 whereas the same for Thini is 6.99 m/s and 337 W/m2, respectively. WAsP analysis shows that the wind speed and wind power density in the study area (20 × 20 km2) varies from 2.72 m/s to 44.51 m/s and 0.23 kW/m2 to 173.27 kW/m2. Optimized layout of a 15 MW wind farm that is comprised of twenty-five S52 -600 kW turbines, developed by openWind software, yields annual gross energy 63.58 GWh, and net energy 41.66 GWh with a capacity factor of 31.68%. The economic analysis of the farm suggests that the unit energy cost is in the range of NRs 4.57 to NRs 6.10 under different energy availability scenarios when meeting the project MARR of 16.1%. Based on the results, it is apparent that the wind resources at Mustang are suitable for harnessing wind energy especially for the purpose of utility scale electricity generation. Site accessibility is a major challenging factor to establish a wind farm currently.Keywords: WAsP; OpenWind; Resource Assessment; Wind Farm; Feasibility StudyDOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jie.v8i1-2.5099Journal of the Institute of Engineering Vol. 8, No. 1&2, 2010/2011Page: 93-104Uploaded Date: 20 July, 2011