Property-liability Insurance Research Articles

Insurance Cycles, Spanning and Regulation

This paper offers a novel explanation of the financial underwriting cycle in the property-liability insurance industry. By doing so it resolves that significant anomaly in asset pricing theory posed by cycles in the efficient pricing of insurance coverage. In contrast to the reliance on a variety of institutional or capital market failures underlying all previous explanations of this cycle, we directly augment the complete-markets environment of traditional asset-pricing models through the presence of a single source of risk that cannot be fully hedged through existing financial markets. We realistically interpret this source of risk as unforecastable noise in the implementation of insurance regulations. Cycles in the value of underwriting insurance coverage can arise in this simple variant of a standard complete-markets pricing model owing to the effect of such regulatory risk. We offer a sufficient condition for a stable cycle to endogenously exist in market equilibrium and illustrate this condition in the context of a representative insurance firm and a regulator pursuing a countercyclical policy with noisy implementation. Interestingly, while insurance pricing is efficient in the absence of the regulator, cyclic pricing and underwriting profitability can be induced by a countercyclical regulator policy designed to stabilize the very cycle it creates.

Enterprise risk management and economies of scale and scope: evidence from the German insurance industry

Enterprise risk management (ERM) is the approach of managing all risks faced by an enterprise in an integrated, holistic fashion. This research investigates whether the utilization of the ERM approach helps firms achieve economies of scale and scope. We use detailed survey data of German property-liability insurance companies that allows us to construct continuous measures of ERM quality. We find that ERM quality positively moderates the size-scale efficiency relationship, and we find that ERM positively moderates the diversification-revenue scope efficiency relationship, indicating that ERM facilitates economies of scale and economies of scope with respect to revenue complementarities. We do not find any evidence of economies of scope with respect to cost complementarities. Our results suggest that ERM’s impact on economies of scale and scope is one answer to the question of how ERM can create value.

Property-Liability Insurers’ Discretionary and Nondiscretionary Loss Reserve Error: Relation with Investor Sentiment

We examine whether investor sentiment is associated with loss reserve estimates of property-liability (P/L) insurers. Using the Michigan Consumer Confidence Index as a proxy for sentiment, we find that the level of investor sentiment is negatively associated with discretionary component of loss reserve error. In contrast, our evidence does not suggest a similar relationship hold for investor sentiment and nondiscretionary loss reserve error. Further analysis indicates that stock insurers are more sensitive to investor sentiment than mutual insurers, in terms of discretionary component of loss reserves. The results are consistent with our hypothesis that P/L insurers cater to investors’ optimism (pessimism), driven by investor sentiment, via discretionary loss reserve claims. For robust test, we also measure investor sentiment by using two alternative proxies: the Conference Board Consumer Confidence Index, and the index in the stock market developed by Baker and Wurgler (2006, 2007). The results are consistent. Our study discovers a new rationale for why insurers may use discretion over their loss reserves.

Why do small and medium enterprises (SMEs) demand property liability insurance?

Several empirical articles have attempted to clarify the insurance demands of listed firms, but few have sought to analyze small and medium enterprises’ (SMEs) demands because of the unavailability of adequate data. In this study, I analyze SMEs’ insurance demand by using a corporate survey and find the following. First, SMEs with relatively weak relationships with their main banks tend to demand more insurance. Second, SMEs with higher tax incentives tend to demand more insurance. Third, SMEs with a higher probability of bankruptcy tend to demand less insurance.

It’s about building a book of business: incentives of insurance salespersons from future renewals

Most property-liability insurance contracts are short-term contracts which can be renewed at expiration. With an average policy renewal rate of 89%, selling a policy not only generates immediate revenue but also results in expected future revenue for an agency. Outside employment options give salespersons negotiating power to claim a fraction of their increased production. This link between current performance and future compensation creates implicit incentives. Our empirical analysis documents a strong positive relationship between the fraction of renewals and salespersons’ output, and between output and salespersons’ compensation. These results hold regardless of whether salespersons receive a fixed salary, a combination of salary and commission, or compensation entirely based on commission. Overall, these findings support the view that property-liability insurance salespersons have strong incentives to build a book of business, and that these indirect sales incentives allow insurance agencies to offer compensation schemes with a fixed salary component.

The Effect of Diversification under Different Ownership Structures and Economic Conditions: Evidence from the Great Recession

The effect of corporate diversification on firm performance has been extensively documented in the literature. In the general finance literature, Kuppuswamy and Villalonga (2015) studied the diversification effect during the 2007–2009 financial crisis and found that diversification adds value in the presence of external financing constraints. Motivated by this finding, we investigate whether a similar effect applies to insurance firms and we develop hypotheses for their different ownership structures (stock vs. mutual insurers; and group vs. non-group affiliated insurers). Using a sample of property-liability insurers over a period of 2004 to 2013, we find that the effect of diversification on performance is contingent on ownership structures and economic conditions. The diversification effect for stock insurers and insurers affiliated with a group is not significantly affected by economic conditions. However, the diversification effect for mutual insurers and non-affiliated insurers is reversed during the financial crisis. More specifically, diversified firms with these kinds of ownership structures perform better than focused firms during normal economic conditions, but their performance was significantly worse during the financial crisis. Our results are robust to alternative measures of performance and diversification, and to corrections for endogeneity. Our study contributes to the diversification literature by showing how the effect of diversification varies with ownership structure under different economic conditions and the results shed light on the specific circumstances in which diversification can improve or reduce performance.

Does reinsurance purchasing enhance insurers’ competitiveness? Evidence from the U.S. property–liability insurance industry

This study investigates whether firms that purchase more strategic reinsurance ex ante could enhance their competitiveness in the output market ex post for the U.S. property–liability insurance industry. The empirical results show that reinsurance purchasing does not increase insurers’ competitiveness ex post, which contradicts the prediction of the strategic commitment hypothesis. A plausible explanation is that the U.S. property–liability industry tends to be a completely competitive market and not an oligopoly. In addition, reinsurance purchasing seems to be regarded as an insurer’s operational characteristic and not to be treated as a strategic demand for sending an aggressive signal on the output market to its competitors.

A dynamic model of an insurer: loss shocks, capacity constraints and underwriting cycles

PurposeThis paper aims to revisit the assumption of the cyclicality of the property-liability insurance market and identify a scenario in which the so-called underwriting cycles are unpredictable, according to a dynamic cash flow model which generates non-cyclical output dynamics.Design/methodology/approachThis paper is on the intersection of real business cycle models and financial cycles. The authors construct a dynamic model of an insurer’s cash flows with stochastic loss shocks and capacity constraints, in which loss shocks have a dual impact on both underwriting profits and access to external capital. They simulate the insurer’s optimal output responses to loss shocks, including output movements in underwriting coverage and external capital, to explore the source of unpredictable underwriting cycles through linear quadratic approximation in the model economy.FindingsThe authors find that the effect of loss shocks on the insurer’s cash flows could spread out and amplify over time because of the dynamic interaction between its underwriting capability and ability to raise external capital. This dynamic interaction can generate a non-cyclical pattern of changes in underwriting coverage and access to external capital in the benchmark economy. Applied to different experimental economies, the simulation results reveal that the determinants of the level of output fluctuations include the size of loss shocks, the sensitivity of capital market to loss shocks and the tightness of capital market.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, there has been no attempt to study insurance output cyclicality with a dynamic cash flow model based upon the real business cycle literature, in which the dynamic interaction between underwriting and access to external capital because of loss shocks has an amplifying effect on output markets. This paper contributes to the current body of research by being able to simulate and show the insurance output dynamics resulting from the amplifying effect under capacity constraints.

Corporate hedging and dividend policy: An empirical study of Korean firms

This study examines whether corporate hedging is associated with dividend payouts. Using a sample of firms listed on the Korea Stock Exchange (KSE) between 2002 and 2017, we find that firms with a higher use of property-liability insurance pay more dividends. This finding is robust to endogeneity issues and alternative proxies for dividend payouts. Overall, our empirical evidence sheds light on the effect of hedging with property-liability insurance on a firm's dividend decisions.

On the Corporate Demand for Insurance: Evidence From the Global Reinsurance Market

AbstractIn this article, we view the demand for reinsurance as a “special case” of the corporate demand for insurance. We analyze the extent to which reinsurance purchases by the global property–liability insurance industry vary across countries and assess the relative importance of country‐level factors compared with firm‐level factors. Using a data set consisting of 21,814 firm‐year observations from 33 (developed and developing) countries during the period 2000–2012, we find that after controlling for firm‐level factors, country‐level factors have economically as well as statistically significant effects on the demand for reinsurance.

Corporate transparency and reserve management: Evidence from US property-liability insurance companies

Abstract Using a sample of US publicly traded property-liability insurers, we examine the effect of corporate transparency on earnings management. We find that a higher level of corporate transparency is associated with more conservative loss-reserves estimation. Our evidence shows that the positive effect of corporate transparency on insurers’ reserves-estimate conservatism is more pronounced for insurers that are smaller and have more diversified lines of business and that certain board characteristics—such as being smaller, meeting more frequently, and having a higher percentage of independent directors—can restrain the inadequate reserves management of less transparent US publicly traded property-liability insurers. We also provide evidence that additional regulatory mandates to seek greater transparency in the Sarbanes-Oxley Act may be redundant, given the existing regulations in the property-liability insurance industry. Finally, we find insurers’ conservative reserve estimates were more pronounced during the 2008–2009 financial crisis.

The analysis of capital structure for property-liability insurers: a quantile regression approach

By using a two-stage quantile regression approach (2SQR), this study demonstrates how the insurer’s leverage is determined across various quantiles. The evidence shows that the influence of the business concentration and marketing channel at the lower leverage quantiles is opposite to that at the higher leverage quantiles, which proposes that the mean effects of the two-stage ordinary least squares method are insufficient to capture the effects of business strategies on the insurer’s capital structure determination. Moreover, the 2SQR evidence also shows that the magnitude of the impacts for some determinations varies among the different leverage quantiles. In sum, the evidence suggests that these two competing approaches should be viewed as complementary functions when discussing the insurer’s capital structure.

Organizational Forms in MENA Property-Liability Insurance Industry: The Risk Implications

This paper provides an evidence of the effect of organizational forms on the risk taking behavior, mainly by analyzing stock, mutual and Islamic insurers, between 2011 and 2016, from three countries of MENA’s region. Empirical tests are here applied to evaluate risk differences between these three types of ownership structures. We assume that stock insurers are more risky than mutual and Islamic ones and write more business with higher risk.

Reserve Management and Audit Committee Characteristics: Evidence from U.S. Property–Liability Insurance Companies

ABSTRACTWe examine the relation between reserve management and a set of audit committee characteristics of property–liability insurers, using reserve errors as a proxy for reserve management. We find that insurers with three audit committee characteristics have more conservative loss reserve estimations: larger audit committee size and more members with accounting expertise, and more audit committee meetings. Our results also find that three recommendations of the 1999 Blue Ribbon Committee can make corporate audit committees more effective: a minimum audit committee size, a minimum level of accounting expertise, and a minimum number of audit committee meetings. These results were obtained when we controlled for board of director characteristics, firm‐specific characteristics, and Sarbanes–Oxley. Some board composition variables (e.g., director ownership) also have an impact on reserve management during our study period. The evidence overall suggests that the audit committee and some board characteristics have an impact on reserve management (earnings management) even in a regulated environment such as the insurance industry.

CEO Overconfidence and Earnings Management: Evidence from Property-Liability Insurers' Loss Reserves

This study investigates the relation between managerial overconfidence and loss-reserving practices in the U.S. property-liability insurance industry. We find robust evidence that CEO overconfidence is significantly associated with relatively low loss reserves, resulting in relatively high reported earnings. This finding is consistent with the theoretical predication that overconfident managers overestimate the returns on their investment projects and underestimate losses. Our result contributes to the literature linking CEOs' personality traits and firms' accounting policy as well as to the literature on insurer loss-reserving practices.

The Sensitivity of Reinsurance Demand to Counterparty Risk: Evidence From the U.S. Property–Liability Insurance Industry

AbstractThis article investigates market discipline in the reinsurance market by examining the sensitivity of reinsurance demand to reinsurer counterparty risk for a sample of U.S. property–liability insurance companies. Using the financial strength rating of reinsurers as a proxy for reinsurance counterparty risk, we find evidence of market discipline that reinsurance demand is sensitive to counterparty risk. Specifically, reinsurance demand reacts negatively to reinsurer rating downgrades, with the reduction being the largest when a “weak” reinsurer gets “weaker,” followed by a reinsurer being downgraded below a benchmark rating. The sensitivity is higher for authorized reinsurance than for unauthorized reinsurance. Reinsurance demand sensitivity to counterparty risk is found to be lower for ceding insurers with higher leverage. Ceding insurers with high reinsurer sustainability are less sensitive to noncritical rating downgrades of reinsurers. Additionally, reinsurance demand is found to be less sensitive to reinsurer upgrading than to reinsurer downgrading.

Non-life insurance price dynamics: evidence from the Chinese insurance market

Non-life insurance prices may fluctuate due to economic and/or institutional factors; occasionally, the changes are cyclical. While the majority of previous studies relating to insurance price dynamics adopt data from developed economies, this paper uses data from China to provide new evidence. This study tests the long-term and short-term effects of real gross domestic product (GDP), interest rate and rate of stock market return on the prices of different lines of non-life insurance, i.e., property-liability insurance and personal accident insurance. The results indicate that the price dynamics of property-liability insurance are generally similar to those of developed countries, except for the effect of GDP, while price determination of personal accident insurance seems to be affected by a wider range of economic and institutional variables and has its own features. The price dynamics of non-life insurance in China have been identified as being connected to the country-specific economic and institutional environments.

The relationship between insurer solvency and reinsurance: evidence from the Taiwan property-liability insurance industry

This study examines the relationship between insurer solvency and reinsurance. Taiwan provides an interesting environment for studying this issue with its relatively shallow market and natural catastrophe risk in the property-liability (P/L) insurance industry. The results of this investigation suggest that insurer solvency and reinsurance are interdependent. I find that insurers with higher solvency tend to purchase more reinsurance, and insurers with higher reinsurance dependence tend to have a higher level of solvency. Other empirical results show that underwriting risks, business concentration, return on investment (ROI) and business mix have a significant impact on reinsurance. Furthermore, I also find that insurers used less reinsurance after the RBC regime. In addition, firm size, return on asset (ROA), ROI, marine insurance, financial holdings and listed firms have a significant influence on an insurer's solvency. My results have practical implications for the P/L insurance industry and competent authorities in Taiwan.

The relationship between insurer solvency and reinsurance: evidence from the Taiwan property-liability insurance industry

This study examines the relationship between insurer solvency and reinsurance. Taiwan provides an interesting environment for studying this issue with its relatively shallow market and natural catastrophe risk in the property-liability (P/L) insurance industry. The results of this investigation suggest that insurer solvency and reinsurance are interdependent. I find that insurers with higher solvency tend to purchase more reinsurance, and insurers with higher reinsurance dependence tend to have a higher level of solvency. Other empirical results show that underwriting risks, business concentration, return on investment (ROI) and business mix have a significant impact on reinsurance. Furthermore, I also find that insurers used less reinsurance after the RBC regime. In addition, firm size, return on asset (ROA), ROI, marine insurance, financial holdings and listed firms have a significant influence on an insurer's solvency. My results have practical implications for the P/L insurance industry and competent authorities in Taiwan.

Enterprise Risk Management and Economies of Scale and Scope: Evidence from the German Insurance Industry

Enterprise risk management (ERM) is the approach of managing all risks faced by an enterprise in an integrated, holistic fashion. This research investigates whether the utilization of the ERM approach helps firms achieve economies of scale and scope. We use detailed survey data of German property-liability insurance companies that allows us to construct continuous measures of ERM quality. We find that ERM quality positively moderates the size-scale efficiency relationship, and we find that ERM positively moderates the diversification-revenue scope efficiency relationship, indicating that ERM facilitates economies of scale and economies of scope with respect to revenue complementarities. We do not find any evidence of economies of scope with respect to cost complementarities. Our results suggest that ERM’s impact on economies of scale and scope is one answer to the question how ERM can create value.