Properties Of Water Research Articles

The Effect of Drinking Ionized Water on the Productive Performance, Physiological Status, and Carcass Characteristics of Broiler Chicks

Water treatment technologies have received great attention recently, as water is the most important nutritional element, and animals consume it daily in larger quantities than those of food. The ideal water treatment affects the chemical composition and physical properties of water, having a significant positive impact on the animal’s physiology, productivity, and welfare. Studies conducted on water ionization devices for broiler chickens remain limited; therefore, this study was planned to investigate the effect of ionized drinking water on the productive performance, physiological status, and carcass characteristics of broiler chicks. A total of 900 one-day-old broiler chicks were randomly and equally assigned to three groups, each with six replicates (50 birds/replicate). The first group (C) received tap drinking water and served as a control, while the second group (T1) received ionized drinking water from an ionizing device that worked for 1 h/100 L. The third group (T2) received ionized drinking water from an ionizing device that worked for 2 h/100 L. Water analysis for each treatment was performed. Productive traits, such as weekly body weight, feed intake, and water intake, were recorded. Hematological parameters and biochemical constituents were measured according to the reference’s description. Furthermore, carcass characteristics, such as carcass weight and dressing percentage, and bacterial count of the intestine, such as Lactobacilli and Coliform counts, were determined. From the results, ionized water (T1 and T2) had a negative ORP, which is often desirable as it suggests the presence of antioxidant properties and lower total dissolved solids (TDSs), heterotrophic plate count (HPC), and algal total count (ATC) than in tap water. The treated chicks showed higher final body weights and better feed conversion rates than the control. Ionized water also improved carcass quality characteristics, such as carcass weight and dressing percentage. T1 and T2 chicks exhibited higher hemoglobin, total protein, globulin, G and M immunoglobulin, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) levels, as well as lower malondialdehyde (MDA) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels than the control. Furthermore, they had lower pathogenic bacteria counts. Therefore, it is recommended to employ the ionizing approach for broiler chicken drinking water, particularly a 2 h/100 L ionization application, for better animal productivity, health, and welfare.

Warming accelerated phosphorus release from the sediment of Lake Chaohu during the decomposition of algal residues: A simulative study

Algal decomposition plays an important role in affecting phosphorus (P) release from sediments in eutrophic lakes under global warming. Yet how rising air temperature affect endogenous P release from sediments during the algal decomposition is poorly understood. In this study, effect of increasing air temperature on endogenous P release was investigated. A 22-day laboratory warming simulation experiment was conducted, with the overlying water and sediments collected from Lake Chaohu incubated in microcosms at three temperatures (21, 28 and 37°C). Dynamics of P fractions and related physiochemical properties in water and sediments were measured, and P release rate from sediments was calculated. Rising air temperature significantly reduced redox potential, but elevated pH, dissolved organic carbon (C) and alkaline phosphatase activity in water. For the average value during incubation, rising temperature significantly elevated P release rate and soluble reactive P by 3 times in overlying water, and greatly reduced total organic P (by 19.0%) in sediments, while did not affect total inorganic P in sediments. The NH4Cl-Po and NaHCO3-Po concentrations in sediments showed the greatest decrease (accounting for 97.6% of total decrease) during the experiment. Dynamics of P release rate, soluble reactive P, dissolved organic C in water and organic P, total organic C in sediments during incubation were also differed among different temperatures. The P release rate was significantly and negatively correlated with dissolved organic C and redox potential at all temperatures, negatively correlated with sediment inorganic P at 21°C, while negatively correlated with sediment organic P at 37°C. The results revealed that rising temperature strongly stimulated endogenous P release from sediments during the decay of algal residues, which was mainly due to the acceleration of organic P mineralization Warming-induced changes in the amount and dynamics of dissolved organic C played the dominant role in accelerating P release from sediments.

Hydrochemical Dynamics of River Flow in a Mountain River (Katun River as an Example)

It is noted that the efficiency of protection and rational use of water resources decreases due to uncertainty of information about spontaneously changing indicators of their quality, uniqueness of such variability and, consequently, due to impossibility to develop uniform rules of economic use of water bodies and watercourses. It is shown that these problems arise not only in water bodies subjected to intensive anthropogenic impact, but also in those remaining in practically natural conditions. The results of the authors' studies of the rivers of the Altai Mountains are presented, where such features of melt (freshly formed) water as structural shifts in time series of its quality indicators, clustering of volatility, non-seasonal cyclicity and long memory of time series were discovered. It was concluded that it is necessary to take into account not only external conditions but also intrinsic dynamic characteristics of water flow to assess water composition and properties in order to reliably predict its quality and ensure efficient water use.

Random Sampling Versus Active Learning Algorithms for Machine Learning Potentials of Quantum Liquid Water.

Training accurate machine learning potentials requires electronic structure data comprehensively covering the configurational space of the system of interest. As the construction of this data is computationally demanding, many schemes for identifying the most important structures have been proposed. Here, we compare the performance of high-dimensional neural network potentials (HDNNPs) for quantum liquid water at ambient conditions trained to data sets constructed using random sampling as well as various flavors of active learning based on query by committee. Contrary to the common understanding of active learning, we find that for a given data set size, random sampling leads to smaller test errors for structures not included in the training process. In our analysis, we show that this can be related to small energy offsets caused by a bias in structures added in active learning, which can be overcome by using instead energy correlations as an error measure that is invariant to such shifts. Still, all HDNNPs yield very similar and accurate structural properties of quantum liquid water, which demonstrates the robustness of the training procedure with respect to the training set construction algorithm even when trained to as few as 200 structures. However, we find that for active learning based on preliminary potentials, a reasonable initial data set is important to avoid an unnecessary extension of the covered configuration space to less relevant regions.

Seasonal observations on the influence of groundwater discharge on meiofaunal assemblages in subterranean estuaries of southwest India.

The submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) into the sea is known to alter various biotic and abiotic properties of coastal waters. However, its influence on the lower trophic levels, namely, meiofauna, is poorly understood. This study highlights the impact of SGD on the density, distribution, and diversity of intertidal meiofaunal communities along the subterranean estuaries (STEs) of the southwest coast of India (Arabian Sea). As an outcome of extensive field sampling between 2019 and 2022, we found that groundwater discharge has a direct influence on the local meiofaunal communities. Significant decline in meiofaunal density and diversity in the SGD impacted sites with 2 to 4 times lower densities than the unimpacted sites were documented. Lower groundwater salinity, lesser organic carbon content, hypoxic sediment conditions, and lower mean grain size in STEs can be the major driving factors determining the lower meiofaunal densities. δ13C and δ15N isotopic signatures indicated that major sources of organic carbon in STEs of the Kerala coast are from C3 plants.

A flexible wearable sensor based on the multiple interaction and synergistic effect of the hydrogel components with anti-freezing, low swelling for human motion detection and underwater communication.

To meet the increasing demand for wearable sensor in special environment such as low temperature or underwater, a multifunctional ionic conducting hydrogel (Gel/PSAA-Al3+ hydrogel) with anti-freezing and low swelling for human motion detection and underwater communication was prepared using gelatin (Gel), [2-(methacryloyloxy) ethyl] dimethyl-(3-sulfopropyl) ammonium hydroxide (SBMA), acrylamide (AAm), acrylic acid (AAc), and AlCl3. Due to reversible hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions and metal coordination crosslinking between the polymer networks, the resulting Gel/PSAA-Al3+ hydrogels present low swelling property in water and exhibit large tensile properties (~1050 %), high tensile strength (~250 kPa) and excellent fatigue resistance. In addition, the hydration capacity of SBMA and AlCl3 endows the Gel/PSAA-Al3+ hydrogel fantastic anti-freezing (-31.58 °C) and water retention properties. Moreover, the electrostatic interaction between SBMA and AlCl3 due to the ion hopping mechanism endows the hydrogel with excellent ionic conductivity (6.38 mS/cm). The Gel/PSAA-Al3+ hydrogel sensors present good biocompatibility and provide a wide operating range (0 %-1050 %), fast response time (229 ms) and recovery time (248 ms), high sensitivity (GF = 1.61) and excellent stability for detecting large and small body movements. The Gel/PSAA-Al3+ hydrogel shows potential applications as a wearable sensor for communication at low temperature or underwater.

Toward mitigating the impact of non-bulk defects on describing water structure in salt aqueous solutions: Characterizing solution density with a network-based structural indicator.

Structural indicators, also known as structural descriptors, including order parameters, have been proposed to quantify the structural properties of water to account for its anomalous behaviors. However, these indicators, mainly designed for bulk water, are not naturally transferrable to the vicinity of ions due to disruptions in the immediate neighboring space and a resulting loss of feature completeness. To address these non-bulk defects, we introduced a structural indicator that draws on the concept of clique number from graph theory and the criterion in agglomerative clustering, denoted as the average cluster number. This structural indicator aims to discern intrinsic structural characteristics within the water molecules regardless of the ions occupying the neighboring space, without requiring additional corrections. From molecular dynamics simulation results for neat water and salt aqueous solutions utilizing the TIP4P/2005 water model and the Madrid-2019 force field, we characterized the variations in densities with temperature using this network-based indicator, thereby demonstrating its practical utility. The findings suggest that at lower temperatures, the addition of ions disrupts the intrinsic structure of water molecules, with this effect diminishing as the temperature rises. Cations with larger charge density tend to induce stronger disruptions. This study highlights the importance of mitigating the impact of non-bulk defects before applying the indicators to analyze water's intrinsic structural properties in solutions. By doing so, the relationship between changes in water structure and solution behaviors can be more accurately assessed.

Protein extraction technologies for foxtail, pearl, and proso millets along with their structural and techno-functional properties: a review

Abstract As the world’s population grows, so does the demand for protein, and the growing population is actively seeking alternative protein sources that are affordable and available locally. Millet, a resilient crop with a remarkable ability to adapt to unfavourable conditions, has emerged as a potential alternative in recent years. Millet contains protein levels ranging from 7% to 21%, depending on the variety, growing condition, maturity of seeds, and species. This review looks closely into the current protein extraction technologies used on three popular millets: pearl, foxtail, and proso millet. Aside from the extraction technologies, this review provides a thorough critical analysis of structural and techno-functional properties of millet proteins, namely, solubility, emulsifying activity, water and oil holding capacity, and foaming ability, which are important attributes impacting the potential use of millet proteins in food and beverages. Thus, the insights gained from this review provide a strong foundation for future research and development on pearl, foxtail, and proso millet as an ingredient in a wide range of gluten-free food products, meat analogue formulations, and nutraceuticals.

Effects of increased nutrient loading and water level caused by extreme flooding on <i>Hydrilla </i><i>verticillata</i>, periphyton and water properties

Effects of increased nutrient loading and water level caused by extreme flooding on <i>Hydrilla </i><i>verticillata</i>, periphyton and water properties

Seasonal patterns of microbial plankton and periodicity of climatic and hydrographic conditions in a semi-desert macrotidal wetland

Macrotidal wetlands of temperate areas are highly productive systems where interactions between land and water are particularly dynamic. Typically, these systems display temporal shifts in their water properties not only because of annual fluctuations in the photoperiod and air temperature but also due to strong tidal regimes and climatic events. In contrast with the well-studied microtidal systems, the temporal fluctuations in structure and biomass of microbial communities of semi-desert, enclosed temperate macrotidal wetlands are scarcely known, and thus the coupling between primary producers and the bacterial community occurring within them remains poorly understood. In this study we analyze the fluctuations of unicellular plankton and hydrographic conditions on a fixed station located in San Antonio Bay (SAB, Northern Argentine Patagonia) from spring 2016 to early summer 2018 with the aim of detecting possible associations with the periodicity of some climatological variables and local meteorological events. Density and biomass of microbial size fractions (pico-, nano- and microplankton) along with their nutrition modes (autotrophic, potentially mixotrophic and heterotrophic) were assessed based on bi-weekly samplings. In addition, the study also examines the relationships of autotrophs and bacterioplankton with the frequency, duration, and magnitude of phytoplanktonic blooms, as well as the biomass contribution of dominant diatom species. We found a microbial-dominated planktonic system with increased densities of both autotrophic and heterotrophic picoplankton and flagellated protists. The biomass of potentially mixotrophs dominated over that of autotrophs and heterotrophs along the entire period. Autotrophic biomass showed a single annual maximum in summer, while chlorophyll-a displayed a biannual cycle. Neither chlorophyll-a nor autotrophic biomass reached high values as compared to other coastal systems with no clear dominant phytoplanktonic taxa. The annual phytoplanktonic biomass cycle in SAB appears not to be related to those of other coastal environments from North Patagonia. We infer that the strong macrotidal dynamics limits primary production and turns this system into a high nutrient/low chlorophyll one that exports surplus nutrients in tide-driven pulses to neighboring areas.

Effects of intentionally-treated water on cell migration of human glioblastoma cells.

This study investigated if human glioblastoma cancer cells (U87MG cell line) cultured in intentionally treated water could reduce cell migration, a prerequisite for metastasis, as compared to the same cells cultured in untreated (control) water. Three Buddhist monks entered a meditative state and directed their awareness to bottles of ultrapure water while holding the intention that the water would cause beneficial changes in U87MG. The study was conducted double-blind whereby all aspects of the study involving cell growth and migration measures, as well as all subsequent statistical evaluations, were performed without knowledge of the type of water being used. Cell cultures were incubated in growth mediums prepared with treated and untreated water, and a wound healing assay was employed to measure cell migration. U87MG cells incubated with treated water migrated less efficiently than the same cells in untreated water. A repeated measures ANOVA, spanning four time periods (0, 3, 6, and 9 h), determined that the time × water condition interaction was associated with p < 0.005. Intentioned awareness appeared to change as-yet unknown properties of ultrapure water, resulting in a reduction of U87MG cells migration activity. Further research is warranted to replicate these results and to investigate the underlying protein expression mechanisms in influencing cell migration.

Recyclable PVA/starch/Ti3C2Tx MXene nanocomposite films with superior mechanical and barrier properties.

The fabrication of eco-friendly and high-performance composite materials has gained significant attention for multifunctional applications. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/starch composite films containing varying amounts of Ti3C2Tx MXene (2.5-10wt%) were produced using a simple casting method. The impact of MXene nanoplatelets on the films' chemical structure and physical properties were thoroughly analysed. It was revealed that MXene formed hydrogen bonding with the polymer matrix and tended to align in the plane of the films. The mechanical properties of the PVA/starch blend were significantly improved with increasing MXene loading. With 10wt% MXene, the Young's modulus (YM) and tensile strength (TS) increased by 669% (from 255.7 to 1965.3MPa) and 292% (from 9.2 to 36.1MPa), respectively. Additionally, the presence of MXene greatly improved the films' water and oxygen barrier properties, reducing water vapor permeability (WVP) by 91% and oxygen permeability (OP) by 79%. These improvements are attributed to the homogeneous dispersion of MXene within the blend and the interfacial interactions between the components. Furthermore, the PVA/starch/MXene composite films exhibited excellent recyclability, maintaining their mechanical and barrier properties even after recycling, demonstrating their potential for repeated use without performance loss. Overall, the developed composite films present a promising sustainable solution for applications in materials requiring advanced mechanical and barrier performance.

Effects of UV-A irradiation and microbial fermentation on the physicochemical, microstructure and functional properties of okara

Whole utilization of okara has important economic value, but there are two technical barriers: coarse mouthfeel caused by insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) and undesirable “beany” off-odors. UV-A irradiation and/or microbial fermentation were used to modify okara. The results indicated that single and combined treatments increased the soluble dietary fiber (SDF) content. Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation (YUO), Lactiplantibacillus plantarum fermentation (LUO), and mixed fermentation (MUO) followed by UV-A irradiation of okara significantly reduced the IDF/SDF ratio to 2.48, 1.86 and 2.25, respectively. The modifications significantly reduced the lipid and total nitrogen contents and decreased the E-nose sensor values associated with beany odors. The combined treatment of microbial fermentation and UV-A irradiation partially destroyed the crystalline, resulting in a loose and porous surface, further enhanced the functional properties of water holding capacity, water solubility, antioxidant properties and cation exchange capacity. In particular, the DPPH and ABTS scavenging abilities of okara subject to microbial fermentation followed by UV-A irradiation were greater than that of other samples. These results indicate that the treatment sequence is very important for the functional properties of okara and microbial fermentation followed by UV-A irradiation is most conducive to improve the physicochemical properties and functionalities of okara.

A new sea ice concentration retrieval algorithm from thermal infrared imagery

ABSTRACT Sea ice concentration (SIC) can be retrieved from thermal infrared (TIR) imagery due to the distinctive thermal properties of ice and water. Nevertheless, existing TIR-based SIC algorithms rely on surface temperature data, which often introduces additional errors. To address this issue, we have developed a new TIR ice concentration algorithm (TIRIA) that directly utilizes TIR brightness temperatures. TIRIA considers factors such as seawater salinity, observation angle and their impacts on seawater brightness temperature. TIRIA and a traditional algorithm, the MODIS potential open water algorithm (MPA), are applied to MODIS TIR imagery. Results are evaluated with near-infrared (NIR) SICs and compared with passive microwave (PM) SICs. Overall, TIRIA outperforms MPA, exhibiting a smaller root mean square error (RMSE) (14.01% compared to 17.63%) and higher correlation coefficient (0.89 compared to 0.81). Both TIRIA and MPA tend to underestimate SIC in high SICs while overestimating it in low SICs. Due to its more accurate identification of water, TIRIA significantly mitigates the overestimation in low SICs. Compared to PM-based SICs, both TIR-based SICs exhibit overall overestimations, with better consistency between TIRIA and PM-based SICs. TIRIA, being independent of surface temperature products and theoretically applicable to any TIR data, showcases great potential for future application.

Environmental Assessment of Al-Sudair River Water

The studies dealt with an environmental evaluation of the characteristics of Sudair water in order to know its suitability for various uses (drinking water -irrigation - animal drinking). The study relied on the analysis of the chemical and physical properties of the water of the Sudair table, including (10) models of (10) sites and one model from each site (winter if summer). An element and a compound were also analyzed, and then these results were matched with international and Iraqi specifications to find out their suitability for various uses. It dealt with the abstract and the introduction, the problem of the study, its hypothesis, its importance and its limits, while it dealt with an analytical study as well as the qualitative characteristics of the waters of the Sudair table, which include (the physical and chemical characteristics of the Sudair table). Evaluation of Sudair water for various uses (represented by (civil use of drinking water, agricultural use (for irrigation and drinking animals). The study relied mostly on field work by collecting water models and using a set of tools and supplies such as a mercury thermometer, a GPS device and a camera, as well as water model analysis devices, as well as the adoption of maps to represent the phenomenon studied.The study has reached some main conclusions, namely that the physical and chemical properties of Sudair stream water vary spatially according to the variation of natural and human conditions. The study also found that Sudair water varies in its suitability for drinking water and agricultural use according to global and Iraqi environmental determinants and that this variation is spatial.

A Review on Groundwater Pollution in India and their Health Problems

Any change in the physical, chemical, and biological properties of water makes it unfit for consumption. Currently, the main sources of groundwater pollution in India are water from domestic, industrial, and agricultural sources, which enter and contaminate the groundwater mainly through soil leaching. As India's industry continues to expand, pollution from groundwater exploitation and groundwater depletion are becoming an issue. Chemicals and road salts, air pollutants, contaminated soils, heavy metals, acidification, landfills, microbial contaminants, pesticides, and nitrate contamination from groundwater, sewage, wastewater, and septic tanks are the major groundwater pollution problems in India. The same elements of inorganic contaminants: are aluminum, nickel, arsenic, barium, cadmium, dissolved particles, iron, lead, and zinc—potential health problems. Organic contaminants - Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), pesticides, plasticizers, chlorinated solvents, dioxins, pharmaceuticals, and antibiotics are present in water and affect its quality. Drinking contaminated water can cause kidney damage, liver damage, cancer, skin damage, skin inflammation, weight loss, nervous system damage, respiratory problems, etc. problems for healthy people. This review is to identify the Major Groundwater Contamination Problems in India and their Potential health problems.

Water-based interventions in rheumatic diseases: mechanisms, benefits, and clinical applications.

Chronic pain and restricted mobility, hallmark features of rheumatic diseases, substantially affect patients' quality of life, often resulting in physical disability and emotional distress. Given the long-term nature of these conditions, there is a growing interest in complementary therapeutic approaches, emphasizing the need to explore non-pharmacological treatments. Hydrotherapy, balneotherapy, and mud therapy have emerged as effective interventions to alleviate pain, reduce inflammation, improve joint mobility, and enhance overall physical and mental well-being. These therapies utilize water's thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties to regulate blood circulation, metabolism, inflammatory processes, and patients' psycho-emotional states. This narrative review evaluates the multifaceted effects of water-based treatments on patients with rheumatic diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and fibromyalgia syndrome. Special attention is given to these therapies' synergistic effects, underlying mechanisms, and impacts on patients' physical and emotional health. In conclusion, the integrated use of water-based therapies represents a promising adjunctive treatment for improving the quality of life in patients with rheumatic diseases. However, further research must refine and individualize these therapeutic approaches for optimal outcomes.

Assessing water quality and land use impact in the Itanhém River basin: a study between the cities of Teixeira de Freitas and Alcobaça, Bahia

ABSTRACT Land use and occupation play a crucial role in shaping the physical and chemical properties of water. Like this study aimed to analyze the water quality parameters of a stretch the Itanhém River and relate this quality with the land use and occupation . To this end, samples were collected from seven strategically chosen points,identifying the physical-chemical variables necessary to obtain the Water Quality Index (WQI), . The Florestal Forum database was applied to analyze land use. The results showed that the body of water studied obtained values of thermotolerant coliforms and total phosphorus higher than the maximum values, WQI values that ranged between bad and good, and the Trophic State Index (TSI), it was identified as hypereutrophic was characterized the presence of pastures (both dirty and clean). Therefore, adequate management of water resources at the local level is necessary, as are agricultural, forestry, and sanitation activities.

Evaluation of water hardness treatment methods using sodium hydroxide and their impact on water quality

Hard water is an environmental and technical challenge caused by high concentrations of calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions, leading to scale formation that affects the efficiency of household and industrial appliances and increases maintenance and treatment costs. Additionally, hard water can pose health risks and reduce its quality for daily use. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of different doses of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in treating water hardness and improving water quality by reducing total hardness (TH) and adjusting the physicochemical properties of water. Three main dosages were tested: the first dosage (5 g/L of NaOH), which assessed the basic effectiveness of sodium hydroxide; the second dosage (2.5 g/L of NaOH and 2.5 g/L of Na₂CO₃ with HCl and acid), aimed at balancing hardness reduction with mineral retention; and the optimized dosages (10, 20, and 30 mg/L of NaOH), which proved to be the most effective and balanced. The optimized doses successfully reduced total hardness to levels compliant with Algerian standards while maintaining calcium and magnesium concentrations within acceptable ranges. Furthermore, electrical conductivity (EC) remained within safe limits without significant increases, ensuring the water did not become oversaturated with dissolved salts. The slight increase in sodium (Na⁺) concentration also remained within permissible levels, enhancing the water's suitability for drinking and other uses. Based on these results, the optimized NaOH dosages are the optimal solution for water hardness treatment, achieving a balance between reducing hardness and ensuring water quality in compliance with local standards.

Solutes in water affect the primary cavitation bubble generated by a pulsed erbium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet laser

Laser-activated irrigation (LAI) of root canal systems depends on the generation of cavitation bubbles in the endodontic irrigant. Physical studies thus far focused on pulse energy, pulse length, frequency, and fiber tip shape, mostly in plain water. This study investigated the effect of endodontically relevant molecules (sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), 1-hydroxyethylidene-1,1-diphosphonic acid (HEDP), and their combination) in water on physical properties of the resulting solution, and their impact on primary cavitation bubble features. A commercially available 3% NaOCl irrigant was used, as well as an etidronate powder (Dual Rinse HEDP) to be admixed. Physical parameters (density, surface tension, and viscosity) of these solutions were assessed, including HEDP effects in an ascending concentration series of up to 20%. Primary cavitation bubble features (dimensional and temporal) in conjunction with a pulsed erbium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Er: YAG) laser equipped with a flat or conical fiber tip were studied in these liquids using a high-speed camera. Solutes increased the solution’s density, surface tension, and viscosity, with an almost linear response to HEDP dosage (Pearson correlation coefficient > 0.95). This reduced the speed of the primary cavitation bubble, and increased its size and lifetime. Increased HEDP concentrations had a pronounced effect on the shape of bubbles generated at the flat tip. NaOCl and HEDP alter the physical properties of water, which, in turn, affect its cavitation behavior.