Property Destruction Research Articles

“I Get So Mad Cause We Ain’t Got No Freedom”: Black Women, Rage, and the Harlem Uprising of 1943

In the early evening of August 1, 1943, a New York City police officer arrested Marjorie Polite at the Braddock Hotel. Polite’s arrest created an expansive political moment for shortly after her arrest, some 3,000 New Yorkers deployed upon 125th Street. Over the course of the next two days and in their shared rage, a group of Black Harlemites targeted white-owned businesses which culminated in 500 physical injuries, at least six deaths, a reported 5 million dollars in property damages, and 623 arrests at the height of World War II. What do the stories of five ordinary women, each with different relationships to Harlem and the uprising, tell us about Black women’s experience in mid-twentieth century urban America? Using the biographical vignettes of Black women arrested in connection with the Harlem uprising, this article examines popular protest and property destruction as a feminine form of rage.

Resilience through Mobility: Urban Residents’ Adaptation Strategies in Conflict-Affected Bamenda, Cameroon

The global phenomenon of human population displacement during environmental stressors and socio-political crises has far-reaching impacts. In urban areas, residents' mobility is often driven by various factors. This study investigates urban residents' mobility as a resilience strategy in response to the Anglophone socio-political crisis in Bamenda, Cameroon. Employing a case study design and purposive sampling, the research selected five neighborhoods based on the extent of residential changes as a result of the ongoing socio-political crisis in the region. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 105 respondents and focus group discussions to explore residential mobility as a resilience mechanism. The findings revealed that five specific population groups were affected by the socio-political crisis, prompting them to relocate within Bamenda. Among those displaced, 60% were households led by individuals aged 26-32. Key reasons for displacement included ongoing violence, loss of life, family disconnection, property destruction, disrupted economic activities, halted education, and increased internally displaced persons in the region. The study also found that residents with higher financial status could relocate to safer areas, while vulnerable individuals often fled or temporarily sought refuge in forests. The prolonged crisis, over seven years now, has severely impacted Bamenda residents, escalating forced displacement rates. Consequently, the study recommends that the government implement targeted urban planning policies to enhance resilience strategies, focusing on affordable social housing, resettlement structures, and improved access to basic services for displaced residents, while fostering peace and stability in Cameroon’s Northwest and Southwest regions.

The interplay of Christianity and Ndau African traditional religion in shaping climate change adaptation in Zimbabwe: An Afrocentric analysis

AbstractThis paper utilizes Afrocentric tenets to explore how the Ndau people's shift from African traditional religion to Christianity affects their understanding and experience of climate change. Set against recent climate‐induced disasters in Chimanimani, the study employs Afrocentric qualitative methods, including talking cycles and philosophical sagacity interviews, to gather data from household heads and village leaders. Findings indicate that traditional religious practices significantly influenced rainfall patterns and disease control, impacting agriculture. The transition to Christianity has markedly altered the community's climate change adaptation strategies. Despite this shift, Christianity has provided benefits, aiding communities in coping with droughts, death, property destruction, livelihood disruption, and climate change‐induced diseases. This study contributes to Sustainable Development Goal 13, emphasizing the importance of understanding society's social rubric to combat climate change. By employing Afrocentric lenses to analyze the Ndau people's historical and cultural narratives, it offers a unique perspective on religious evolution and climate adaptation.

Psycho Social Challenges Experienced by Flood Victims in Charsaadda, Pakistan

Flood victims face a complicated set of emotional, social, and mental challenges that require advanced knowledge and personalized treatments. The July 2010 flood severely disrupted Pakistani society, inflicting chaos and structural damage and needing a new framework for the people of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. This research investigates the social and psychological effects of the floods on residents of Charsadda, Pakistan. The information was gathered from people affected by floods in Charsadda, Pakistan. Purposive sampling methods were used to choose responders. N = 377 flood victims were selected from four villages in Union Council Agra. The data for this research was gathered from flood victims using a closed-ended questionnaire. The study emphasizes the enormous social and emotional hardship that flood victims experience, extensive property destruction and health issues. They lacked zeal for their well-being and exhibited excessive emotional reactions. The study suggests focusing social rehabilitation on financial aid and interest-free loans, conducting training sessions and building adequate therapy programs for future calamities. Psychological treatment can offer comfort and support to those impacted. Those who are impacted can find comfort via psychological treatment.

Metaheuristic algorithms for calibration of two-dimensional wildfire spread prediction model

Wildfires are complex phenomena with harmful consequences, ranging from environmental and property destruction to loss of human lives. In this sense, predicting wildfire behaviour is essential to mitigate its impacts and consequences. The Rothermel model is the most used fire rate of spread prediction model. However, input parameter uncertainty is a significant source of prediction error. In this paper, we propose the calibration of the input parameters of the fire propagation model by metaheuristic algorithms under a two-stage framework. The fire spread model consists on the Rothermel model in a two-dimensional approach for surface fires. The proposed calibration is performed in two stages iteratively repeated over time: (i) the calibration of the fire spread model’s input parameters and (ii) the wildfire spread prediction using the calibrated input parameters. The calibration was performed by the genetic algorithm, differential evolution, and simulated annealing, which calibrates the surface-area-to-volume ratio, fuel bed depth, live fuel moisture and dead fuel moisture. The symmetric difference between the real and predicted fire map shapes was defined as the fitness function of all three metaheuristic algorithms. For validation, simulations were done on two prescribed fires. The results for the real and estimated fire behaviour were then compared and revealed that all the tested metaheuristic algorithms produce a better fit to the real fire’s perimeter when compared to the uncalibrated Rothermel model. From the results, differential evolution provided the majority of best results when compared to genetic algorithm and simulated annealing algorithms in each scenario.

Mining versus Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas: Traditional Land Uses of the Anisininew in the Red Sucker Lake First Nation, Manitoba, Canada

Indigenous traditional land uses, including hunting, fishing, sacred activities, and land-based education at the Red Sucker Lake First Nation (RSLFN) in Manitoba, Canada, are impacted by mining. The Red Sucker Lake First Nation (RSLFN) people want their territories’ land and water to be protected for traditional uses, culture, and ecological integrity. Towards this goal, their Island Lake Tribal Council sought support for an Indigenous-protected and conserved area (IPCA) in their territory, outside of existing mining claims, but without success. The two-eyed seeing approach was adopted in this study. Traditional land use mapping and interviews were undertaken with 21 Indigenous people from the RSLFN, showing that many traditional land uses are concentrated on greenstone belts. The interviews revealed that mining exploration has resulted in large petroleum spills, noise distress, private property destruction, wildlife die-offs, and animal population declines. These issues negatively impact RSLFN’s traditional land use practices, ecosystem integrity, and community health. Governments need to partner with Indigenous communities to reach their biodiversity targets, particularly considering northern Canada’s peatlands, including those in the RSLFN territory, surpassing Amazon forests for carbon storage. The role of critical minerals in renewable energy and geopolitics has colonial governments undermining Indigenous rights, climate stabilization, and biodiversity to prioritize extractivism. Mining at the RSLFN has environmental impacts from exploration to decommissioning and after, as well as the massive infrastructure required that includes roads, hydro, and massive energy supplies, with a proposed multimedia national Northern Corridor to export RSLFN’s resources and other resources to six ports.

Eco-sabotage as Defensive Activism

AbstractI argue for the conditions that eco-sabotage (sabotage involving the protection of animals or the environment) must meet to be a morally permissible form of activism in a liberal democracy. I illustrate my case with Jessica Reznicek and Ruby Montoya’s oil pipeline destruction, the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society’s whale hunt sabotage, and the Valve Turners’ pipeline shut-off, climate necessity-defense. My primary contention is that just as it is permissible to destroy an attacker’s weapon in self- or other-defense, it is permissible to engage in some forms of eco-sabotage. Taking inspiration from just war theory, I use the conditions of just cause, reasonable chance of success, proportionality, necessity, and discrimination to both conceptualize eco-sabotage as defense and illustrate the justificatory burden the eco-saboteur must meet. Often eco-sabotage is doubly pro-tanto wrong because it is illegal and involves property destruction. Overcoming these hurdles is particularly difficult because in seemingly bypassing democratic means of dispute resolution, the eco-saboteur seemingly coerces the other members of society by forcing idiosyncratic views upon them. Non-anthropocentric eco-sabotage grounded in defense of animal rights has mixed results regarding the democratic objection just described. I argue that anthropocentric eco-sabotage, grounded in defense of human rights, has the best chance of overcoming this objection, provided a persuasive case can be made for its reasonable chance of success. Passing a reasonable chance of success also causes problems for non-anthropocentric eco-sabotage grounded in species defense, while non-anthropocentric eco-sabotage grounded in defense against animal suffering has a lighter justificatory burden.

Design and implementation of an autonomous fire-extinguishing robot with SMS alert functionality

Fire outbreak represents a formidable threat, capable of causing loss of life, property destruction, and permanent injuries. Firefighters bravely confront these hazards, placing themselves at serious risk to protect communities. Despite the inherent dangers, their selfless service remains vital. Among recent technological advancements, firefighting robots have emerged as significant tools for mitigating such risks. These robots utilize machine learning and cutting-edge sensor technologies to enhance fire detection accuracy, minimizing false alarms. To improve the performance of the fire robot, this study designed and implemented an Arduino UNO microcontroller based on the ATmega32 and developed using C++ language. In addition to equipping it with SMS capability that allows it to notify the concerned entity about an outbreak, the developed robot operates autonomously thereby minimizing human error in its operation. With the aid of the ultrasonic sensors, the robot navigates and avoids obstacles collision with high precision. Integrated with flame and smoke sensors controlled by the microcontroller ensures swift fire detection. By autonomously sprinkling water from a mounted container, it effectively suppresses fires. Through this innovative design, the study aims to bolster fire response capabilities, reducing reliance on human intervention and enhancing safety for both firefighters and civilians. From the performance evaluation carried out on the developed robot, it was observed that the robot has exhibited an effective performance in detecting and extinguishing fires using the various sensors.

Deep learning autism classification and prediction

One of the most prevalent illnesses in children is autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (1 in 44). According to some estimates, 53% of kids with ASD engage in one or more challenging behaviors (CB; aggression, self-injury, property destruction, elopement, etc.), which is significantly higher than the prevalence among their peers who are typically developing or who have other developmental disorders. Numerous, significant negative effects of CB on the person exist, and they are linked to a worse long-term outlook. For caregivers of children with ASD, the presence of CB is a better indicator of stress than the severity of the child's core ASD symptoms. The validity of fixed features extracted from autistic children’s face photographs as a biomarker to demarcate them from healthy children is investigated in this study paper. The proposed paper aims to use deep learning models (CNN) to classify autism spectrum disorders based on facial expression images. By leveraging the power of deep convolutional neural networks, based on the Kaggle dataset. We used and prepared data input to CNN models where the split image in two parts horizontally and vertically as feature extractor’s model as a binary classifier to identify autism in children accurately. Our results reveal that the proposed model achieved an accuracy of 94%, Sensitivity of 93% and Specificity of 95% this indicator is considered important and can be built or relied on.

Prevalence and correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder among internal displaced people in Qoloji Camps, Somali regional state, Eastern Ethiopia.

This study assessed the prevalence and correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among internally displaced people (IDP) in the Qoloji Camp, Somali Regional State, Eastern Ethiopia. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from October 20 to November 5, 2021. The study utilized systematic random sampling to identify 410 IDP participants from the Qoloji Camp. PTSD was measured using the PTSD Check-list for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Bivariate analysis was performed to determine the crude odds ratio, and multivariate analysis was used to calculate adjusted odds ratios for associations between PTSD and independent variables. A total of 404 participants were interviewed (98.5% response rate). The estimated prevalence of PTSD symptoms was 41.1%. In the multivariate logistic regression analysis, several factors were significantly associated with PTSD: being female (AOR = 2.5, 95% CI = 1.39-4.44), lack of food and water (AOR = 2.2, 95% CI = 1.17, 4.23), destruction of personal property (AOR = 3.1, 95% CI = 1.62-6.09), and experiencing torture or beatings (AOR = 1.8, 95% CI = 1.01-3.28). This study found a high prevalence of PTSD symptoms among IDPs, with factors such as female sex, property destruction, deprivation of essential goods and services, and experiences of torture or beatings significantly associated with those symptoms. To address these findings, prioritizing the well-being of IDPs with a specific focus on women, on-site screening, and the establishment of a referral system to facilitate access to specialized care are essential to enhance the overall mental health of such persons.

Effects of climate, land use, and human population change on human–elephant conflict risk in Africa and Asia

Human-wildlife conflict is an important factor in the modern biodiversity crisis and has negative effects on both humans and wildlife (such as property destruction, injury, or death) that can impede conservation efforts for threatened species. Effectively addressing conflict requires an understanding of where it is likely to occur, particularly as climate change shifts wildlife ranges and human activities globally. Here, we examine how projected shifts in cropland density, human population density, and climatic suitability-three key drivers of human-elephant conflict-will shift conflict pressures for endangered Asian and African elephants to inform conflict management in a changing climate. We find that conflict risk (cropland density and/or human population density moving into the 90th percentile based on current-day values) increases in 2050, with a larger increase under the high-emissions "regional rivalry" SSP3 - RCP 7.0 scenario than the low-emissions "sustainability" SSP1 - RCP 2.6 scenario. We also find a net decrease in climatic suitability for both species along their extended range boundaries, with decreasing suitability most often overlapping increasing conflict risk when both suitability and conflict risk are changing. Our findings suggest that as climate changes, the risk of conflict with Asian and African elephants may shift and increase and managers should proactively mitigate that conflict to preserve these charismatic animals.

Coseismic Slip Distribution and Coulomb Stress Change of the 2023 MW 7.8 Pazarcik and MW 7.5 Elbistan Earthquakes in Turkey

On 6 February 2023, the MW 7.8 Pazarcik and the MW 7.5 Elbistan earthquakes occurred in southeastern Turkey, close to the Syrian border, causing many deaths and a great deal of property destruction. The Pazarcik earthquake mainly damaged the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ). The Elbistan earthquake mainly damaged the Cardak fault (CF) and the Doğanşehir fault (DF). In this study, Sentinel-1A ascending (ASC) and descending (DES) orbit image data and pixel offset tracking (POT) were used to derive surface deformation fields in the range and azimuth directions induced by the Pazarcik and Elbistan earthquakes (hereinafter referred to as the Turkey double earthquakes). Utilizing GPS coordinate sequence data, we computed the three-dimensional surface deformation resulting from the Turkey double earthquakes. The surface deformation InSAR and GPS results were combined to invert the coseismic slip distribution of the EAFZ, CF, and DF using a layered earth model. The results show that the coseismic ruptures of the Turkey double earthquakes were dominated by left-lateral strike-slips. The maximum slip was 7.76 m on the EAFZ and about 8.2 m on the CF. Both the earthquakes ruptured the surface. The Coulomb failure stress (CFS) was computed based on the fault slip distribution and the geometric parameters of all the active faults within 300 km of the MW 7.8 Pazarcik earthquake’s epicenter. The CFS change resulting from the Pazarcik earthquake suggests that the subsequent Elbistan earthquake was triggered by the Pazarcik earthquake. The Antakya fault experienced an increase in CFS of 8.4 bars during this double-earthquake event. Therefore, the MW 6.3 Uzunbağ earthquake on 20 February 2023 was jointly influenced by the Turkey double earthquakes. Through stress analysis of all the active faults within 300 km of the MW 7.8 Pazarcik earthquake’s epicenter, the Ecemis segment, Camliyayla fault, Aadag fault, Ayvali fault, and Pula segment were all found to be under stress loading. Particularly, the Ayvali fault and Pula segment exhibited conspicuous stress loading, signaling a higher risk of future seismic activity.

Association between ultra-processed dietary pattern and bullying: the role of deviant behaviors.

Ultra-processed foods have been associated with several negative outcomes, but it is not clear whether they are related to bullying perpetration. Moreover, no previous study has investigated the potential role of deviant behaviors as a mediator of this association. Our objective was to evaluate the association between ultra-processed dietary pattern and bullying, and the mediating effect of deviant behaviors in this association, among school adolescents. We used data from a representative sample of 9th grade Brazilian adolescents (N = 2,212) from the São Paulo Project for the social development of children and adolescents (SP-PROSO). Exploratory factor analysis was used to obtain the dietary patterns, through questions of frequency of consumption in the last week of several foods. The ultra-processed dietary pattern was considered as exposure. The outcomes were the types of bullying (any type, social exclusion, psychological/verbal aggression, physical aggression, property destruction, and sexual harassment). Deviant behaviors (mediator) were assessed through a score. Mediation analyses were carried out using logistic regression based on the KHB method. After adjusting for covariates, the mediating effect of deviant behaviors was found in the association between ultra-processed dietary pattern and all the types of bullying perpetration, especially for psychological/verbal aggression (39.4%). A small mediating effect of deviant behaviors in the association of ultra-processed dietary pattern with physical aggression (17.7%) and property destruction (18.5%) was observed, but this effect explained only a small portion of the total effect of such association (significant direct effect). The ultra-processed dietary pattern was associated with bullying, and the association was mediated through deviant behaviors. Policies and actions for improving the adolescent's diet and managing the adoption of deviant and bullying behaviors by this public are required.

IoT-Enabled Systems for Automated Detection and Rescue of Vehicle Accidents

Accident Detection and Rescue Systems (ADRSs) are crucial in mitigating the consequences of accidents by promptly responding to incidents, thereby averting injuries, losses, damages, and property destruction. With the persistent occurrence of fatal and costly accidents in daily life, the necessity for efficient ADRSs cannot be overstated. This study presents a novel approach to augment existing ADRSs by integrating advanced technologies and optimizing communication channels. By incorporating state-of-the-art embedded systems and leveraging cloud technology, the proposed system aims to expedite recovery efforts and enhance overall effectiveness. The integration of cutting-edge embedded systems enhances the capability of the ADRS to swiftly detect and report accidents. These systems can utilize various sensors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, and GPS modules to accurately identify incidents. Once an accident is detected, the system triggers an automated response mechanism to alert emergency services and relevant authorities. This rapid notification facilitates quicker response times, thereby reducing the severity of injuries and minimizing property damage. Furthermore, by harnessing cloud technology, the proposed ADRS can store and process vast amounts of data collected from accident scenes in real-time. This enables comprehensive analysis of the situation, aiding emergency responders in making informed decisions and deploying appropriate resources effectively. Moreover, cloud-based storage ensures that critical information is accessible remotely, allowing for seamless coordination between different stakeholders involved in the rescue operation. One of the key features of the system is its seamless integration with medical evacuation services. Upon detecting an accident, the ADRS automatically initiates a request for medical assistance, providing precise location data and relevant information about the nature of the incident. This ensures that injured individuals receive prompt medical attention, potentially saving lives in critical situations. By integrating advanced technologies and optimizing communication channels, the proposed ADRS aims to significantly improve response times, mitigate the impact of accidents, and ultimately save lives.

The Defender of the Nation: Experiences of the Philippine Army Personnel in Armed Conflicts

Armed conflicts arise when different parties or groups oppose each other’s interests or objectives, often manifesting in violence and threats that instill fear in affected populations and lead to loss of life, psychological trauma, and property destruction. This study focused on the sacrifices made by Philippine Army personnel during armed conflict operations. It aimed to explore their lived experiences, identify the coping mechanisms they employed, and gather their suggestions and recommendations to mitigate the impacts of armed conflict. This study utilized a semi-structured interview guide to collect data. The findings revealed that the lived experiences of Philippine Army personnel during armed conflicts include citizen cooperation, battlefield encounters, fear, emotional anxiety, inspiration, heroism, difficulties during initial encounters, grief, loss of appetite, and psychological trauma. Coping mechanisms identified included unwavering commitment, positive thinking, faith and spiritual guidance, resilience, and prioritizing safety in military operations. The study recommends that Philippine Army personnel undergo counseling services to ensure their well-being and mental health. Furthermore, it advises the Department of National Defense to enhance the modernization and availability of protective equipment. It also encourages citizens to appreciate the work of soldiers and suggests that criminology students consider diverse career paths beyond the traditional tri-bureau.

Pilot study of a real-time early agitation capture technology (REACT) for children with intellectual and developmental disabilities.

Children and adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD), particularly those with autism spectrum disorder, are at increased risk of challenging behaviors such as self-injury, aggression, elopement, and property destruction. To mitigate these challenges, it is crucial to focus on early signs of distress that may lead to these behaviors. These early signs might not be visible to the human eye but could be detected by predictive machine learning (ML) models that utilizes real-time sensing. Current behavioral assessment practices lack such proactive predictive models. This study developed and pilot-tested real-time early agitation capture technology (REACT), a real-time multimodal ML model to detect early signs of distress, termed "agitations." Integrating multimodal sensing, ML, and human expertise could make behavioral assessments for people with IDD safer and more efficient. We leveraged wearable technology to collect behavioral and physiological data from three children with IDD aged 6 to 9 years. The effectiveness of the REACT system was measured using F1 score, assessing its usefulness at the time of agitation to 20s prior. The REACT system was able to detect agitations with an average F1 score of 78.69% at the time of agitation and 68.20% 20s prior. The findings support the use of the REACT model for real-time, proactive detection of agitations in children with IDD. This approach not only improves the accuracy of detecting distress signals that are imperceptible to the human eye but also increases the window for timely intervention before behavioral escalation, thereby enhancing safety, well-being, and inclusion for this vulnerable population. We believe that such technological support system will enhance user autonomy, self-advocacy, and self-determination.

Cyber and contentious politics: Evidence from the US radical environmental movement

Much of the focus of cyber conflict has been on interstate conflict. This article focuses on two interrelated questions in the important but neglected area of cyber contentious politics. First, how does the public feel about the use of different eco tactics including cyber-based tactics carried out by activists involved in the radical environmental movement, a movement that uses protest and sabotage in service of environmental causes? Second, how do anti-technology sentiment and concerns about climate change influence support for different eco tactics? To answer these questions, we conduct a survey and survey experiment on a nationally diverse sample of Americans. We find that Americans are less supportive of certain eco tactics, particularly those that involve property destruction or physical sabotage compared to cyber-based tactics. We further show that anti-technology sentiment and perceived threat from climate change are correlated with increased support for eco direct actions. Using a survey experiment we show that cyber direct actions that result in sabotage are viewed as more acceptable than kinetic actions even though they both result in the same level of destruction. Finally, we include qualitative data from interviews with activists to better understand the strategy and role that new technology and tactics play in the broader radical environmental movement.

Quantification of firebrand generation from WUI fuels for model development: Firebrand generation rate, surface temperature and heat release rate

Wildland fires that spread into developed areas, i.e., the wildland-urban interface (WUI), have resulted in numerous disasters over the past few decades, claiming the lives of civilians and causing large-scale property destruction. In these communities, fires often ignite structures by the deposition of small burning embers (firebrand attack) which is unique to these fires and not yet well understood. This study quantifies the in-flight thermal characteristics of firebrands generated by three typical vegetative fuels, namely stone pine, eucalyptus and oak found in the WUI, inside a lab-scale wind tunnel. The effects of fuel characteristics (i.e., species, moisture content and twig diameter) and ambient condition (i.e., crosswind speed) on surface temperature, number generation rate (NGR), and heat release rate (HRRfb) were investigated. Firebrand surface temperatures, measured using ratio pyrometry, were insensitive to fuel moisture content and mean twig diameter but higher at higher crosswind speeds. Surface temperature was used to estimate the HRRfb of each firebrand based on a surface energy balance and compared to overall emissions measurements. While ratio pyrometry best captured firebrand temperatures, infrared video worked well to track firebrands and derive a NGR as a function of time. Correlations were used to organize the NGR, HRRfb, and mass generation rate (MGR) under different test conditions, and unique correlations were derived for each fuel species. Results showed that the peak NGRs and MGRs for all three fuel species were positively related to crosswind speed but negatively related to fuel moisture content and mean twig diameter. The experimental data, correlations and methods disclosed in this study are important to understand the influence of competing processes on firebrand generation, parameterize fire spread models for time-dependent generation, and improve estimates of downstream ignition potential. Experiments must later be validated against large-scale data before widespread application.

무력충돌시 문화재 파괴 행위에 대한 국제형사책임의 과제

Since the 1990s, situations in which culturally significant heritage sites serve as symbolic targets for intentional attacks, leading to the 'destruction of enemy communities,' have frequently occurred. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), established to prosecute serious violations of international humanitarian law within the former Yugoslav territories, addresses prominent cases of intentional attacks and destruction of cultural property during the armed conflict, specifically targeting the annihilation of ethnic identity. This article examines the implications and limitations of international legal norms regarding the protection of cultural heritage during armed conflicts, focusing on the Dubrovnik Old Town shelling incident, a representative case of cultural property destruction prosecuted by the ICTY. Firstly, the intentional destruction of cultural heritage is undeniably a significant violation of values that the international community must protect. The pursuit of individual criminal responsibility for the destruction of cultural heritage within the international criminal tribunal signifies a substantial advancement in international efforts to protect cultural heritage during armed conflicts. The negative impact of the intentional destruction of cultural property on human dignity and universal human values is undeniable. However, ensuring effective protection of cultural property in the current normative context, where attacks on cultural property for military purposes may be justified, remains challenging. Secondly, military necessity, rooted in customary international law, limits attacks on enemy forces to military objectives, focusing on the centralization of enemy forces, balancing the military necessity of concentrated attacks on enemy forces with humanitarian considerations to protect civilian objects. However, determining what qualifies as a military objective can be challenging, as it depends on the circumstances of combat and operations. Regardless of whether the principle of proportionality is applicable, evaluating the military necessity from the perspective of cultural heritage protection is crucial. ICTY recognizes that even when military necessity justifies attacks on civilian objects, the intentional destruction of cultural heritage can have a significant impact on the psychological well-being of civilians and may upset the balance with military superiority. Thus, careful consideration is necessary when assessing the military necessity in cases where the protection of cultural property, with a higher need for protection than general civilian objects, is involved. Moreover, even if a target has dual-use, being considered a military objective, evaluating proportionality in the attack is essential to prevent harm to civilians, in accordance with the principle of proportionality. In conclusion, the intentional destruction of cultural heritage should be treated as a threat to the common values of the international community, necessitating appropriate legal and policy responses in line with the actual circumstances of the armed coflict. Military commanders should not only view attacks on cultural heritage as inevitable collateral damage but also recognize the gravity of such acts as war crimes and consider them strategically within military operations.

From Conflict to Cohesion: Unveiling Ambon's Journey Through Collective Memory Analysis and Post-Conflict Reconciliation

This article delves into the religious conflict that transpired in Ambon from 1999 to 2004, with a specific focus on elucidating the formation of collective memory as a pivotal mechanism for fostering post-conflict reconciliation. Employing a methodology amalgamating literature review and in-depth interviews, this research scrutinizes the intricate dynamics of the conflict, delineating the roles played by both Muslim and Christian communities, not only as victims but also as perpetrators. The principal findings underscore the shared responsibility of both groups in instigating the conflict, resulting in egregious acts such as assaults, homicides, and property destruction. The article accentuates the imperative of mutual acknowledgment regarding each community's role in the conflict as an indispensable stride towards reconciliation. It posits that an accurate and all-encompassing collective memory of the conflict serves as a catalyst for communities to critically assess their religious practices and fosters a climate of receptivity to broader religious understandings. The research underscores the significance of cultivating a nuanced collective memory in upholding peace and harmony within a diverse post-conflict society.