Properties Of Carrageenan Research Articles

Demystifying E407 and E407a Additives (Carrageenans) Through Their Gastronomic Alchemy: A Contribution to Increase Consumer Sovereignty

Food waste has been recognized as an environmentally damaging practice that is ethically wrong and does not contribute to sustainable development. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, one-third of the food produced each year for human consumption is wasted. The use of additives can help to prevent food waste if they can overcome the problem of the limited supply of natural ingredients, increase the shelf life of food, and simplify cooking procedures. Therefore, the demystification of food additives, as well as their importance and uses, will help to increase consumers’ consciousness and enable them to make informed choices. This work reviews the physical/chemical properties of carrageenans, which are widely used as thickening and stabilizing agents in a wide range of everyday foods. This critical revision was made through bibliographic searches between January and May 2024 in the PubMed and Web of Science databases. The following keywords, in English, were used: “carrageenan*” and “additive*”, combined with the Boolean operator “AND”. Depending on the field of knowledge, another keyword was added to the search, such as, for instance, “chemical composition*”, “physical properties*”, “reology*”, “legal framework*”, “extraction*”, or “molecular cuisine*”. Additionally, the search allowed us to highlight how carrageenans can contribute to a better result in the final preparation of food and how they can be used in modern cuisine using simple molecular gastronomy recipes.

Effects of rainwater on the carrageenan yield and quality and dry yield biomass of eucheumatoid seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii

Kappaphycus alvarezii, a commercially valuable eucheumatoid seaweed, is widely cultivated in equatorial regions for its kappa-carrageenan. A common post-harvest practice among local farmers involves drying the seaweed using the hanging method, often with exposure to rain. This study investigates the effects of rainwater exposure on the carrageenan yield and quality, as well as the dry yield biomass, of K. alvarezii. Four rainwater soaking times (0, 30, 60, and 90 min) were applied to both fresh and dried forms of K. alvarezii. The samples were then dried or re-dried, and their carrageenan properties were analyzed. Results indicate that rainwater significantly reduces dry yield biomass in both fresh and dried forms, while substantially improving carrageenan yield. In its fresh form, exposure to rainwater notably increased gel strength after 90 min of soak. However, when dried seaweed was soaked and re-dried, gel strength was reduced. Rainwater generally had no effect on viscosity or syneresis index. Gelling temperature was significantly affected by rainwater exposure in fresh seaweed but not in dried samples. Melting temperature in fresh forms was unaffected, but rainwater exposure reduced it in dried seaweed after 90 min of soak. Moisture content was significantly reduced by rainwater in both fresh and dried forms. This research highlights the potential impacts of rainwater on the post-harvest processing of Kappaphycus.

Seasonal growth, carrageenan properties, and resistance to disease and epiphytic pests between Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta) var. tambalang (brown) tissue-cultured and farm-sourced seaweeds

Seasonal growth, carrageenan properties, and resistance to disease and epiphytic pests between Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta) var. tambalang (brown) tissue-cultured and farm-sourced seaweeds

Influence of Salt Concentration on Alkaline Extracted Refined Kappa- carrageenan and Its Characterization

Kappaphycus alverazii remains as a predominant source of kappa-carrageenan which is farmed extensively in Indonesia, Philippines and South East Asia. The current research focuses on the influence of concentration of salts and approach to dialysis on properties of carrageenan. Carrageenan due to its pronounced gelling and viscosifying properties, has gained significant usage in the areas of food, cosmetics, textiles, pharmaceutics, biomedicine, and numerous others. The process of extraction was conducted in a hot, alkaline condition at 80 oC for a duration of 2 hours. The alkaline substance used was KCl with 2% and 4% concentration and solvent to seaweed ratio was 20:1.Further, the resultant extracted samples were subjected to dialysis to evaluate the effect of dialysis on the quality of carrageenan. The absorbance peak at 849 cm–1 from Fourier Transform Infrared-Spectroscopy (FTIR) at all extraction conditions indicated D-galactose-4 sulphate related to kappa carrageenan obtained with no traces of \(\mu\)-precursor. The study demonstrated that the concentration of salts and the approach of dialysis have influenced the quality of yield, viscosity, gel strength, moisture content and ash content for the extracted carrageenan, which remains ideal for commercial applications.

A REVIEW: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EDIBLE COATING INCORPORATED WITH RED MACROALGAE (Kappaphycus alvarezii) EXTRACT ON THE POST HARVEST QUALITY OF FRUITS

Fruits and vegetables are the main fresh produce that receive high demand among consumers because of the nutritional properties to boost the human health. However, not all fruits and vegetables are durable due to the ongoing release of ethylene even when harvested. Damaged produce will not be accepted by the customer and will cause post-harvest losses. It was estimated that about 30% of fruits and vegetables are damaged or affected by microorganisms, insects, pre- and post-harvest conditions during transportation and improper storage conditions. Edible coating is an effective approach for fruit preservation. It provides good barrier properties towards carbon dioxide, oxygen, and moisture vapor and at the same time beneficial for the environment and human health. The aim of this review is to investigate the potential of red macroalgae (Kappaphycus alvarezii) as an edible fruit coating. This edible red macroalgae abundant in Sabah is widespread around the world due to their carrageenan properties. Carrageenan is normally used as the main edible coating material due to its thickening stability and natural antioxidant. The carrageenan film from these algae is able to replace synthetic packaging and is more environmentally friendly. The abundant source of this algae in Sabah will ensure sustainability and cost effectiveness besides increasing the socio-economy of the local community. Red macroalgae has potential to be used as a bio preservative in fresh produce as it shows better quality characteristics in physicochemical properties of fruits such as weight loss, colour and firmness.

Gastrointestinal Tract Digestion and Carrageenan: How Misconceptions have influenced the Understanding of Carrageenan Safety

Carrageenan (CGN) is a naturally occurring fiber isolated from various species of red seaweeds (class Rhodophyceae). It has been safely consumed for hundreds of years and today is approved for use in the food industry as a food additive by regulatory agencies around the world. Unfortunately, some researchers have used misleading and incorrect interpretations of early studies to suggest that food-grade CGN (Mw = 200,000 to 800,000 Da.) is not safe for human consumption. These researchers reference studies conducted with the acid-hydrolysis products of CGN, which include degraded carrageenan (d-CGN; Mw = 20,000 to 40,000 Da.) and poligeenan (PGN; Mw = 10,000 to 20,000 Da.), as evidence of the potential adverse health effects of high Mw CGN. While PGN and d-CGN have been shown to have adverse effects in vivo, the same is not true for CGN. Both PGN and d-CGN are made in the laboratory under harsh conditions of low pH (< 2.0) and high temperature (80°C), and have distinctly different physical, chemical and toxicological profiles than CGN. Studies have shown that d-CGN and PGN are not formed in vivo after ingesting CGN, nor are d-CGN and PGN used as food additives. Yet these differences between d-CGN/PGN and CGN are either not understood or are ignored by many authors in the published literature and the adverse effects observed with d-CGN and PGN are being used to question the safety of CGN. This has caused significant confusion in the literature and with regulators. Here we review the physical, chemical and toxicological properties of CGN, d-CGN and PGN. We then review the ingestion of CGN, how the formation of d-CGN and PGN does not occur in vivo. Finally, we discuss recent review providing a prime example of how some publications use misinformation to suggest CGN is unsafe for ingestion.

Preparation and characterization of modified and unmodified carrageenan based films

Seaweed is a green, abundantly available, and inexpensive source of polysaccharide that can be obtained from the sea. In this work, seaweed was introduced as a potential raw material for the production of a biopolymer-based film. A seaweed-derived biopolymer, carrageenan, with or without alkali modification was investigated for its physical, mechanical, and water vapor barrier as well as thermal properties. The effects of chemical modification on the properties of carrageenan were also further studied by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. Results showed that chemically modified carrageenan film exhibited better thermal stability, water vapor barrier property and less hydrophilic as compared to the native seaweed and unmodified carrageenan films. Nevertheless, its mechanical properties (except elongation at breaks) were among the lowest. FTIR analysis indicated that alkali modification of carrageenan capable of removing the hydroxyl and sulfate ester groups in carrageenan structure and meanwhile, forming 3,6-anhydrogalactose, which could improve the flexibility of the film. Moreover, the heating temperature also significantly impacted the properties of the film. As a result, by using carrageenan as a renewable feedstock with or without chemical modification was shown its feasibility on the production of biopolymer film possessed interesting properties.

Addendum to Weiner, M.L. (2016) Parameters and Pitfalls to Consider in the Conduct of Food Additive Research, Carrageenan as a Case Study. Food Chemical Toxicology 87, 31-44.

This paper is an addendum to a 2016 paper outlining pitfalls and parameters to consider in the conduct of food additive research with carrageenan (Fd. Chem. Tox. 87, 31–44 (2016)). The literature on the food additive, “carrageenan,” contains many publications which either erroneously misuse the name, carrageenan, for a sample which is not carrageenan, but “degraded carrageenan” or “poligeenan” and also conduct studies without understanding the physical/chemical properties of carrageenan. Degraded carrageenan and poligeenan are not food additives and have a completely different physical/chemical and toxicological properties from carrageenan. Two recent publication examples, one in vivo and one in vitro, demonstrate the serious misunderstanding promulgated by incorrect sample identity/purity and poor study conduct. These new publication examples reiterate the problems in the literature summarized by the Weiner (2016). It is important to have thorough, rigorous peer review of all studies using carrageenan in vivo or in vitro.

Chemical and physical characteristics of carrageenan extracted from Eucheuma spinosum harvested from three different Indonesian coastal sea regions

SUMMARYCarrageenan extracted from Eucheuma spinosum harvested from three different coastal sea regions, where this alga has been mainly cultivated, were determined for their chemical and physical characteristics. The carrageenan was extracted from the seaweed using hot alkali followed by precipitation, drying, and milling. The carrageenan properties were determined in terms of yield, ash, mineral, sulfate content, functional group, molecular weight, and viscosity profile. Physical characteristics of carrageenan were evaluated by a texture analyzer for gel strength and a rapid visco analyzer for viscosity. The yield of carrageenan from Sumenep (34.81 ± 5.83%) and Takalar (37.16 ± 3.26%) was found to be relatively higher than that of Nusa Penida (25.81 ± 1.93%). The calcium content was higher than magnesium, potassium and sodium content, and no cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic detected in all carrageenan. The ash content was around 29%; while, the sulfate content was in the range of 30–32%, and those were not different in all carrageenan. The presence of sulfate content was identified by FTIR at absorption band of 1373 cm−1. It was found that the molecular weight of carrageenan from Takalar were relatively higher and the gel strength of carrageenan from Takalar were significantly higher than that of carrageenan from Nusa Penida and Sumenep. Likewise, upon cooling from 80 to 20°C, the viscosity profile of carrageenan from Takalar characterized by higher viscosity compared to that of carrageenan from Sumenep and Nusa Penida. These results indicated that carrageenan from Nusa Penida, Sumenep, and Takalar were identified as iota‐carrageenan with similar physico‐chemical characteristics except for the gel strength, viscosity profile upon cooling from 80 to 20°C and the yield.

Functional properties of carrageenan on color stability and sensory characteristics of beef steaks

Abstract This study was designed to evaluate the effects of ingredients and USDA beef quality grade response on meat quality attributes and sensory characteristics. Beef strip loins representing two quality grades (USDA Choice and Select) were enhanced with either 0.25 CG [0.25% kappa-carrageenan+1% sea salt+0.3% sodium tripolyphosphate]; 0.50 CG [0.50% kappa-carrageenan+1% sea salt+0.3% sodium tripolyphosphate]; or 2.5 KL [2.5% potassium lactate+1% sea salt+0.3% sodium tripolyphosphate]; or NEC=non-enhanced control. Changes in surface color, visual appearance, discoloration, and metmyoglobin formation during a 7 d retail display at 2 °C were evaluated. Enhancement with 0.50 CG and 2.5 KL affected ( P P

Carrageenan Properties Extracted From Eucheuma cottonii, Indonesia

Abstract—The effect of extraction solvent upon properties of carrageenan from Eucheuma cottonii was studied. The distilled water and KOH solution (concentration 0.1- 0.5N) were used as the solvent. Extraction process was carried out in water bath equipped by stirrer with constant speed of 275 rpm with a constant ratio of seaweed weight to solvent volume ( 1:50 g/mL) at 86o C for 45 minutes. The extract was then precipitated in 3 volume of 90% ethanol, oven dried at 60o C. Based on experimental data, alkali significantly influenced yield and properties of extracted carrageenan. The extracted carrageenan was found to have essentially identical FTIR spectra to the reference samples of kappa-carrageenan. Increasing the KOH concentration led to carrageenan containing less sulfate content and intrinsic viscosity. The gel strength increased along with the increasing of KOH concentration. The decreasing of intrinsic viscosity value indicates that a polymer degradation occurs during alkali extraction. Keywords— gel strength, sulfate, intrinsic viscosity, Eucheuma cottonii

Carrageenan of Eucheuma isiforme (Solieriaceae, Rhodophyta) from Yucatán, Mexico. I. Effect of extraction conditions

The yield and physicochemical properties of carrageenan from Eucheuma isiforme harvested at the Yucatan coast were investigated. Carrageenan was extracted under dif- ferent alkali concentrations (0, 1, 3, 5 and 7% KOH) and treatment durations (3, 4 and 5 h). Native carrageenan, extracted without KOH, had the highest yield (;44.6%) independently of treatment duration. After alkali treat- ment, carrageenan yield ranged from 35.3 to 31.8%. No significant differences in carrageenan yield were observed between 1 and 3% KOH. Native carrageenan had low viscosity values (39-57.0 cPs), whereas carra- geenan extracted with 1% KOH at 3 and 4 h increased in viscosity (160.0-161.3 cPs). Alkali-treated carrageenan formed very weak gels (-50 g cm -2 ) in 1.5% solutions. The chemical analysis and FTIR spectra revealed a pre- ponderantly iota-carrageenan extract. Extractions per- formed with 1% KOH for 3 h produced carrageenan with suitable properties to be considered as a substitute for traditional iota-carrageenan sources.

Studies on Tanzanian Hypneaceae: Seasonal Variation in Content and Quality of Kappa-Carrageenan from Hypnea musciformis (Gigartinales : Rhodophyta)

Key words: Hypneaceae, Hypnea musciformis , kappa-carrageenan, seasonal variation Seasonal effects on yield and quality of kappa-carrageenan from the red alga Hypnea musciformis were investigated in samples collected from natural populations in Oyster Bay, Dar es Salaam during June 1996May 1997. The mean annual carrageenan yield, gel strength (after treatment with 0.1 M KCl) gelling and melting temperature (±standard deviation) were 25.24 ±4.44 % dry weight, 171.72 ±41.42 g/cm 2 , 54.66 ±3.12 C and 68.62 ±0.60 C, respectively. Carrageenan yield and quality (gel strength) during the SE and NE monsoon seasons were not significantly different (t = 0.55, p > 0.05) and (t = 1.91, p > 0.05), respectively. The reported carrageenan yield and gel strength values were, respectively, about 50% and 40% those of carrageenan from Kappaphycus alvarezi i. Although the carrageenan properties from H. musciformis were promising, its natural populations are generally insufficient to sustain the pressure of economic harvesting. Moreover, the extent to which its carrageenan yield and properties could be improved is not known. Suitable methods for mariculture are therefore needed before the resource can be exploited economically. Western Indian Ocean Journal of Marine Science Vol.3(1) 2004: 43-49

IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE ACTIVITY OF CARRAGEENAN FOR CELL-MEDIATED RESPONSES IN THE MOUSE

Unfractionated carrageenan was highly toxic to CBA mice. By using moderately nontoxic regimens, the immunosuppressive properties of carrageenan were examined in several assays. The growth of tumour allografts was only modestly enhanced at low dosages, but dramatic enhance ment of tumour growth and feeble prolongation of skip allograft survival occurred only at a very high dose. Mixed lymphocyte culture reactivity was significantly diminished at both high and low doses. Phytohaemagglutinin responsiveness was suppressed in the spleen but not in the mesenteric lymph node cells. Changes in the ability of normal syngeneic lymphoid cells to "home" to the lymphoid organs of treated mice were confined to the period immediately after carrageenan administration, an observation that was not temporally related to the suppressive action of carrageenan. It is concluded that, compared with its effect on antibody formation, carrageenan is a very poor inhibitor of cell-mediated responses. Possible reasons for this are discussed.

Ecological studies of economic red algae. IV. Variations of carrageenan concentration and properties in Chondrus crispus Stackhouse

The concentration, gel strength, viscosity, and ratio of kappa to lambda fractions of carrageenan in Chondrus crispus Stackhouse have been studied in relation to age, reproduction, habitat, and season of harvesting. No correlation was found between gel strength and viscosity, but gel strength and the ratio of the fractions showed a direct relationship. Plant age, reproduction, and exposure to wave action had no effect on the quantity or properties of carrageenan. Sublittoral populations of Chondrus had higher viscosities and carrageenan concentrations than littoral plants; gel strengths showed an opposite trend. The amount of carrageenan, gel strength, and the size of the kappa fractions were usually greater in plants of coastal rather than estuarine locations: in contrast, estuarine plants exhibited higher viscosities than coastal plants. Carrageenan concentration, gel strength, and viscosity were highest in late fall-early winter, while the lowest values were recorded during the spring-early summer.