Proper Water Management Research Articles

Predicting runoff and sediment yields using soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) model in the Jemma Subbasin of Upper Blue Nile, Central Ethiopia

The Jemma Subbasin (JS) has a major soil erosion problem emanating from deforestation, overgrazing, and agricultural expansion, including farming of unproductive fringed lands and steep slope terrains. This study was conducted to assess runoff and estimate the subsequent sediment yields in the JS using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The overall efficiency of the SWAT model to accurately estimate the sediment yields in the JS was evaluated by the values of its calibration (R2 = 0.66) and validation (R2 = 0.63), respectively. The findings of the SWAT model revealed that barren land was not only the most susceptible land use type to soil erosion, but also had the highest sediment loads followed by agricultural and grazing lands. In particular, the highest soil erosion coupled with significant sediment yields is attributed to the crop-growing period particularly in the months of July and August in which the cultivated lands were extremely vulnerable to soil erosion resulting from heavy rainfall. Consequently, sediment yields were all significantly greater in the agricultural fields of the lower, middle, and upper parts of the subbasin. This is because those agricultural lands were mainly composed of undulated and moderately steep slope terrains so that they had the highest soil erosion values. However, due to the dense vegetation cover and the associated root density, forestlands were the least erosion vulnerable land use type which in turn resulted in minimal soil loss. Furthermore, the SWAT model showed that the maximum upland sediment yield was estimated to be 3,685.14 tons/ha whereas the average upland annual sediment yield was predicted to be 78.1 tons/ha; however, the sediment yield can be doubled due to climate projection scenario. As a result of the effective implementation of cover (c) and conservation practice (p), the SWAT model predicted that the sediment yields can be reduced by 44.28 % and 35.92 % for RCP8.5 and RCP4.5, respectively. Effective designing and executing of proper soil and water management measures are crucial in the study subbasin so as to minimize the serious soil erosion challenges that can be accelerated by climate and land use land cover (LULC) changes for the long-term sustainability of the degraded landscape of the JS which is categorized by subsistence farming.

Interactive effects of atmospheric CO2 concentration and water stress on the phenology and physiology of faba bean (Vicia faba L.)

Crop modelling is a critical tool for assessing the impact of climate change and for evaluating adaptation strategies to ensure the sustainability of agricultural systems. In addition to increased temperature and reduced precipitation, studying the effects of increased atmospheric CO2 concentration ([CO2]) and water stress on water efficiency of crops is highly relevant for identifying and evaluating impacts and new adaptation measures. We carried out 12 experiments with 4 faba bean cultivars under controlled conditions of [CO2], temperature and water supply. An increase of [CO2] from 430 to 650 ppm caused a 20% reduction in stomatal conductance under optimal irrigation supply but had almost zero effect under water stress conditions. Our study shows that the beneficial effect of a higher atmospheric [CO2] on faba bean growth is counteracted by water stress, with the beneficial effect only detected when proper water management is applied. Thus, stomatal conductance appeared to be more sensitive to water stress than to elevated [CO2], indicating that the beneficial effects of elevated [CO2] on faba bean are largely dependent on the plant water status. This is particularly relevant in Mediterranean agricultural systems, where water shortage associated with droughts will become more frequent, even in areas of irrigation. Although differences in the response between cultivars were observed in our study when the water status was intermediate between optimal and severe drought, no single genotype among those studied will be sufficient to improve or fully guarantee yield under conditions of increasing [CO2] and water shortage. Therefore, the introduction of irrigation and/or sowing date strategies currently represent the only adaptation measures. The gaps in knowledge of the response of faba bean to climate change, and the limited number of adaptation measures available highlight the need for continued research, with breeding of drought-tolerant and high-yielding faba bean genotypes as one of the most promising alternatives.

Natural nodulation and nitrogen fixation of Acacia Auriculiformis grown in technosol eco-engineered from Fe ore tailings

AimsNitrogen deficiency in eco-engineered technosol from iron (Fe) ore tailings limits the productivity of colonising soil microbes and pioneer plants, which are critical to further development of the technosol. Symbiotic biological N2 fixation may be a strategy to supply N in the moderately alkaline early technosols since native legumes such as Acacia auriculiformis are tolerant of saline and alkaline soil conditions as those in the technosol. It is hypothesized that tolerant native legume A. auriculiformis could form functional nodules to fix N2 when grown in early eco-engineered technosols.MethodsA. auriculiformis growth and root nodulation in the early tailing technosols were investigated using a glasshouse experiment, and plant N2 fixation was evaluated using the 15 N natural abundance isotope method. Key factors influencing root nodulation and N2 fixation have also been evaluated, including water supply and phosphorous nutrition.ResultsThe results indicated that A. auriculiformis grew well in the tailing technosols and naturally formed nodules with rhizobia. The nodules were functional in N2 fixation, leading to improved plant N nutrition. The nodulation and N2 fixation were severely limited by water deficiency stress. Improved phosphorous supply favoured nodulation and N2 fixation by A. auriculiformis plants under water deficiency stress.ConclusionsThese findings suggested that A. auriculiformis could grow in early tailings technosols and fixed N2, and proper water and phosphorous fertilizer management could improve Acacia plant’s performance and N2 fixation functions. It is possible to introduce tolerant native legumes such as A. auriculiformis to improve N supply in the early technosols.

Effects of Climate Change and Drought Tolerance on Maize Growth.

Climate change is affecting all regions of the world with different climates, and the scale of damage is increasing due to the occurrence of various natural disasters. In particular, maize production is highly affected by abnormal climate events such as heat waves and droughts. Increasing temperatures can accelerate growth and shorten the growing season, potentially reducing productivity. Additionally, enhanced temperatures during the ripening period can accelerate the process, reducing crop yields. In addition, drought stress due to water deficit can greatly affect seedling formation, early plant growth, photosynthesis, reproductive growth, and yield, so proper water management is critical to maize growth. Maize, in particular, is tall and broad-leaved, so extreme drought stress at planting can cause leaves to curl and stunt growth. It is important to understand that severe drought can have a detrimental effect on the growth and reproduction of maize. In addition, high temperatures caused by drought stress can inhibit the induction of flowering in male flowers and cause factors that interfere with pollen development. It is therefore important to increase the productivity of all food crops, including maize, while maintaining them in the face of persistent drought caused by climate change. This requires a strategy to develop genetically modified crops and drought-tolerant maize that can effectively respond to climate change. The aim of this paper is to investigate the effects of climate change and drought tolerance on maize growth. We also reviewed molecular breeding techniques to develop drought-tolerant maize varieties in response to climate change.

Evaluation of the Streamflow Response to Agricultural Land Expansion in the Thiba River Watershed in Kenya

The increasing global population necessitates increased agricultural production, driving the expansion of agricultural lands and advancement of irrigation farming to supplement the inconsistent and insufficient rainfall patterns prevalent in many regions. This study aimed to evaluate the potential impacts of the expansion of agricultural lands on the streamflow regime of the Thiba River and its impact on the downstream users. The study involved comparing the 2004 and 2014 land uses and using the Hydrologic Engineering Centre’s Hydrologic Modelling Systems (HEC-GeoHMS and HEC-HMS) for long-term impact simulations. The results showed a considerable decline in the streamflow in the dry months compared to the wet months, with increasing water abstraction trends from 2007 to 2014. The long-term impact assessment showed an average decline in streamflow in the near (2030) and far (2060) future due to land use and population changes with minimal impact from the increasing precipitation. Based on these findings, there is a need for proper water management and adaptation mechanisms to be put in place to maintain the future water supply from the Thiba River. This study’s findings could assist policy and decision-makers in making informed water resource management decisions.

Is Controlled Drainage of Agricultural Land a Common Used Practice?—A Bibliographic Analysis

Controlled drainage (CD) is one of the basic techniques used to manage groundwater levels. Farmers can optimize water levels for crop growth at different stages of the growing season. Proper drainage water management can reduce the risk of soil erosion and surface water pollution. By controlling drainage, sediment and nutrient runoff can be minimized, leading to improved water quality in nearby streams and rivers. A mixed methods approach was used, which was based on the bibliometric analysis and content analysis of 462 articles using the bibliometrix R package and VOSviewer software. The article aimed to analyze the Author Keywords and KeyWords Plus to indicate the resulting clusters of complex interdependence that emerge from the main research areas. Continuous research continues to improve drainage techniques and systems to optimize agricultural water use. The results indicated the importance of researching the feasibility of CD for agriculture. The innovation of this study is that it points out the relevance of taking up the possibility of changing the use of unilateral subsurface drainage systems with another method of controlling drainage outflows as a current global challenge, contributing to filling this gap in the literature.

A Legal Framework for Energy-Conscious Urban Planning in Poland and Germany

This work seeks to answer the question as to whether the legal orders of Poland and Germany provide an effective framework for energy-efficient and climate-resilient urban space management. To this end, it verifies what similarities and differences exist between certain areas and whether they need reform. The starting point is the belief that legal instruments for environmentally friendly space management are a cross-border issue. Comparative studies are important because effective environmental protection knows no borders, and a lower level of protection in one country or geographic region can affect neighbouring countries and regions. The analysis of legal norms affecting such issues as passive energy construction; prevention of soil sealing and adequate ventilation; reduction of CO2 emissions; promotion of green areas; proper water management; reduction of so-called “grey energy” associated with new construction; the compact city; and a reduction of light pollution has enabled us to synthesise findings into specific conclusions and to propose postulates and directions for further research. However, this does not change the overall assessment that the legal systems of Poland and Germany enable environmentally friendly space management at a similar level, while at the same time, certain additions to the regulations and a further discussion of possible improvements are most welcome and needed.

A remote sensing approach to estimate variable crop coefficient and evapotranspiration for improved water productivity in the Ethiopian highlands

Proper and reasonable estimation of actual evapotranspiration is critical for the design, operation, and management of irrigation systems. However, the density of climatic stations is low in many parts of Ethiopia to estimate spatially reasonable reference evapotranspiration (ETo), and the lack of spatial variability of crop coefficient (Kc) is clear barrier to the proper management of irrigation water. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to estimate reasonable crop evapotranspiration (ETc) by deriving spatially and temporally varying crop coefficients using remote sensing products in 10 wheat plots at the Koga irrigation scheme. The moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) potential evapotranspiration was calibrated at two class-I climate stations (Bahir Dar and Dangila) based on Penman–Monteith estimates and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was derived from Sentinel 2B, which was later used to derive Kc. The correlation between reference evapotranspiration from MODIS Penman Monteith was acceptable for both Dangila (R2 = 0.64) and Bahir Dar (R2 = 0.74) stations. The MODIS calibration constant for Koga irrigation schemes was 0.27 and 1.99 (regression slope and constant) on an 8-day basis. Similarly, a strong correlation (R2 = 0.95) was found between Sentinel-based NDVI and FAO crop coefficient, which indicated an alternative pathway for estimating crop coefficient. The value of Kc varies in space (across the 10 plots) from 0.16 to 0.42 at the initial stage and from 1.20 to 1.32 at the mid-stage. Similarly, the mean value of Kc varies in time from 0.29 at the initial stage to 1.26 at the mid-stage. On the other hand, evaluation of MODIS and WaPOR ETc found a significant difference (p < 0.05) with the calibrated MODIS-Sentinel 2B derived ETc. This indicated the need to calibrate both MODIS and WaPOR for the proper estimation of crop water needs. Underestimation of ET was observed from MODIS, and the reverse is true for WaPOR. Our findings showed that calibrating and integrating MODIS with Sentinel 2B would be a feasible approach to estimate Kc and hence ETc that varies in time and space. This would assist water managers in estimating crop water needs for better productivity in the region.

Evaluating the Capacity of Existing Stormwater Drainage System in Kapan, Kathmandu via SWMM Mode

Overflowing drainage systems in the Nepalese cities are the most significant issue due to unplanned urban expansion and inadequate drainage networks. As the city's drainage networks are not designed to handle the extra runoff from catastrophic flooding incidents, flash floods typically occur during short-duration, and high-intensity rainstorm storms frequently. In the vicinity of Kapan, Kathmandu, and many other Nepalese cities, particularly during the rainy season, roads are seen changing into the streams. This study employs a hydrological analysis model to examine the storm water drainage system existing currently in the Kapan area. Being the EPA Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) physically based, deterministic type that simulates the inflows, outflows, and storages of water within a sub-catchment efficiently, it is chosen here mainly to model the catchments specifically. Though it has not been employed frequently in the context of Nepal, despite its popularity in the industrialized countries such as United States of America for the proper management of the storm water, the SWMM is particularly employed here to model the catchments due to its publicly available, easy to obtain, simple data input parameters, and simple processing steps in compared to other relatively more expensive yet sophisticated models. The catchment's overall area of 360.57 hectares was at first separated into the 86 sub catchments using the SWMM based on its surface elevation and existing drainage network, and the attributes of each sub-catchment were then assigned accordingly. After the proper identification of the sub-catchments, the runoff from the relevant sub-catchments was routed to the respective nodes, and finally to the outlet via conduits. In the current study, the drain system (Combined Sewer line) is given along the center of the road network. The storm network are represented by junctions, conduits, and outfalls. The longitudinal and velocity profiles of the drain were obtained. The critical runoff and capacity of existing drains were determined, as well as their validation with discharge derived using the rational technique. With the runoff generated during peak rainfall 45.08 mm/hr., the Kapan area's existing drainage system was found to be insufficient. This study suggests that the SWMM would be the most effective model to be employed for predicting the sudden surface runoff and for prior managing of the storm water, particularly in Kathmandu and other vulnerable parts of main cities in Nepal, where overflow has caused serious problems during rainfall.

Simulation of the rainfall–runoff relationship using an HEC-HMS hydrological model for Dabus Subbasin, Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia

Abstract Hydrological modeling is important to provide relevant hydrologic information from limited data. In this study, Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS) was used to simulate the rainfall–runoff relationship for the Dabus subbasin of the Blue Nile Basin. Daily precipitation and stream flow data from 2002 to 2019 were used as key input data for the model, together with soil and land use/land cover data, and a digital elevation model of the study area. Arc-GIS was employed in combination with Arc Hydro and HEC-GeoHMS tools for terrain processing and translating spatial information into model files for HEC-HMS, respectively. Model calibration was done with data from 2002 to 2014, while the validation was done from 2015 to 2019. Nash-Sutcliffe simulation efficiency (NSE), observation standardized ratio (RSR), and coefficient of correlation (R2) were used to assess the performance of the model. With NSE, RSR, and R2 values of 0.784, 0.334, and 0.816 for calibration, and 0.793, 0.323, and 0.875 for validation, the model simulation of stream flows was found in good agreement with the observed values. Therefore, the HEC-HMS model can be utilized to predict stream flows in ungauged catchments in the Dabus subbasin from measured rainfall data for proper water resource planning and management.

Water consumption assessment in mineral processing integrating weather information and geometallurgical modeling

Water is essential in mineral processing. Because water is a limited resource and many mining operations are located in water-scarce areas, proper water management is crucial. An alternative to facing water scarcity in mining is its reuse in the process. Water recirculation is limited because there are water losses associated with the plant operation and the tailings facility. Tailings composition and particle size affect the losses related to entrainment and rewetting. These parameters can be estimated by simulating the plant using geometallurgical models. Weather variables such as radiation, temperature, wind speed, and the fraction of possible sunshine, impact the evaporation expected in the tailings facility. The variability of weather conditions throughout the year implies that evaporation depends on the season. This information is used to assess the water balance in a tailings facility located in a specific region, estimating the water consumption for a given operation. Water consumption can be economically valued and included in the mine plan. This methodology is used to provide examples where a mine plan is optimized incorporating water consumption and using efficient water management criteria.

GIS Based Mapping for a Better Crop Planning for Perumpadappu Block of Ponnani Kole Lands in Kerala

Kole lands are one of the biggest saline, humid tropical wetland ecosystems. It spreads across Thrissur and Malappuram districts of Kerala state. They serve as a water storage structure during rainy season. After rains, the stored water is dewatered and circulated in various Kole padasekarams and channels to cultivate paddy. However, the problem is the lack of a proper water management plan resulting in crop loss. The current study is conducted in the Perumpadappu block of Ponnani Kole lands in Malappuram district. In this study, both GIS and Remote sensing technology have been collaborated to plan the crop calendar. The cropping calendar of Ponnai Kole was developed mainly for 37 Kole padashekharams of Perumpadappu block. Data about elevation, transportation, irrigation, weather and soil were collected to arrive at the crop calendar. Together, by adopting participatory rural appraisal methods and local knowledge were integrated. The final crop calendar was wetted with farmers and experts.

Analysis of spatial and temporal trend of hydro-climatic parameters in the Kilombero River Catchment, Tanzania

Inadequate knowledge on actual water availability, have raised social-economic conflicts that necessitate proper water management. This requires a better understanding of spatial–temporal trends of hydro-climatic variables as the main contributor to available water for use by sectors of economy. The study has analysed the trend of hydro-climatic variables viz. precipitation, temperature, evapotranspiration and river discharge. One downstream river gauge station was used for discharge data whereas a total of 9 daily observed and 29 grided satellite stations were used for climate data. Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation was used for precipitation data and Observational-Reanalysis Hybrid was used for Temperature data. Mann–Kendall Statistical test, Sen’s slope estimator and ArcMap Inverse Distance Weighted Interpolation functionality were employed for temporal, magnitude and spatial trend analysis respectively. Results confirmed that, spatially, there are three main climatic zones in the study area viz. Udzungwa escarpment, Kilombero valley and Mahenge escarpment. On temporal analysis, with exception of the declining potential evapotranspiration trend, all other variables are on increase. This is with catchment rates of 2.08 mm/year, 0.05 °C/year, 0.02 °C/year, 498.6 m3/s/year and − 2.27 mm/year for precipitation, Tmax, Tmin, river discharge and PET respectively. Furthermore, rainfalls start late by a month (November) while temperatures picks earlier by September and October for Tmax and Tmin respectively. Water availability matches farming season. However, it is recommended to improve water resources management practices to limit flow impairment as expansions in sectors of economy are expected. Furthermore, landuse change analysis is recommended to ascertain actual trend and hence future water uptake.

An Integrated Approach to Evaluating Crop Water Requirements and Irrigation Schedule for Optimizing Furrow Irrigation Design Parameters in Kurnool District, India

In Kurnool district, due to the hot, arid climatic conditions, proper study of crop evapotranspiration and its effect on crop water demand for various crops is an extremely important issue. More focus will be given to the design and development of surface irrigation systems based mostly on furrow irrigation, as the rainfall pattern for this district was irregular in 2005. The crop water requirement and furrow irrigation design parameters for optimising the beneficial utilisation of available water resources and field performances are studied in this research. Some major crops, such as cotton, sugarcane, sorghum, maize, and sunflower, are considered when adopting a suitable furrow irrigation system for soil conditions of the types black clay, red loamy, and medium loam. The reference crop evapotranspiration was estimated for 2005 based on the Penman–Monteith equation as per FAO guidelines by the CROPWAT 8.0 model. Crop Water Requirement (CWR), Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR), and Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR) were determined for available climatic and soil conditions. Soil surface characteristics were studied using AQUACROP 6.1 and compared with CROPWAT 8.0 for model accuracy. Various conservative and non-conservative crop characteristics were studied under limited set conditions, and correlation equations were developed between different parameters. Moreover, different furrow irrigation design parameters were considered by FURDEV (a module of the SURDEV model) for three modes of operation (i.e., fixed flow, cutback flow, and tailwater reuse method) under modified SCS (Soil Conservation Service) families of soil infiltration characteristics. NIR values were 200 mm, 1423.2 mm, 220 mm, 150 mm, and 150 mm for cotton, sugarcane, maize, sorghum, and sunflower, respectively. A maximum significant dry yield was observed for maize (13.586 tonnes/ha). Additionally, the maximum application efficiency and storage efficiency were obtained at 95.5% for sorghum and 99.3% for sunflower, which would be a beneficial outcome of this research. In general, the results of this research might be very effective for the irrigation authority of Kurnool District to plan suitable approaches for designing and developing proper water management systems.

Streamflow simulation using conceptual and neural network models in the Hemavathi sub-watershed, India

Water is one of the most valuable natural resources and a major element of a state's and country's socio-economic growth. The world's water resources and India are under huge pressure because of rising demand and a limited supply. Proper water management is the only solution for ensuring a close gap between demand and supply. Hydrological modeling offers an answer to this issue by establishing relationships between different hydrological processes. Several models have been developed in the past decade to simulate the rainfall and runoff relations. Some models are simple conceptual models based on spatially distributed event-based or continuous and artificial intelligence (AI) models. This study aims to compare two conceptual daily-based models and one AI model developed for the Hemavathi sub-watershed in the Cauvery Basin (India). Two daily runoff models are implemented using conceptual models, i.e., Sacramento and the Australian water balance model (AWBM) using Rainfall-Runoff Library (RRL) tool and Feed forward Backpropagation neural network (FFBPNN) model. The models were calibrated for daily streamflow values from 1990 to 2006 and then validated from 2007 to 2015. The effectiveness of model runoff predictions is evaluated using statistical parameters such as Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) and Correlation coefficient (CC) values. The NSE values for the FFBPNN is 0.88 (calibration) and 0.74 (validation), Sacramento model is 0.66 (calibration) and 0.48 (validation), and 0.63 (calibration) and 0.44 (validation) for the AWBM model. From the obtained results, the FFBPNN model performs well in terms of NSE and CC compared to Sacramento and AWBM models.

Stakeholder engagement in irrigation water management: the case of Karanganyar Regency, Indonesia

The increasing level of water demand leads to higher pressure in the water irrigation system due to environmental degradation in watersheds and irrigation canals. Irrigation water management requires the involvement of stakeholders, including the government and farmers, as the water user association. Stakeholders are expected to be able to carry out their respective roles and be engaged in solving problems of proper irrigation water management. This paper uses a qualitative approach to stakeholders’ roles, challenges, and opportunities in irrigation water management in Karanganyar Regency. It aims to understand stakeholder engagement in irrigation water management. The data were collected by observation and interviews with stakeholders such as national irrigation commissions, provinces, local governments, and water user associations. The results show that there has been a clear division of roles and responsibilities among the stakeholders included in the irrigation commission. However, it is found that there is an asynchronous regulation in implementing irrigation water management at the national, provincial, and local levels. The lack of human resources is another obstacle faced in irrigation water management in Karanganyar Regency.

GIS-based Spatial Assessment of Post COVID Water Quality Status of Turag River for Water Resource Conservation in Bangladesh

The COVID-19 pandemic has had enormous effects on human life and the environment, particularly freshwater ecosystems, on a global scale. Despite its numerous effects, the pandemic has improved the quality of the environment, allowing devastated ecosystems to recover. During the COVID lockdown period, many researchers observed positive amendments in environmental quality in various parts of the world. Due to increased industrialization and urbanization over the past several decades, Dhaka's peripheral rivers have grown highly polluted. In this study, an attempt was made to illustrate the post-covid surface water quality scenario of Bangladesh's hihgly contaminated Turag River. Therefore, for the first time, a GIS-based spatial analysis of water quality index was used to endeavor to quantify 16 water quality parameters (pH, EC, temperature, turbidity, salinity, TDS, DO, Na+, K+ Ca2+, Mg2+ Cl-, Cu, Pb, Fe, and Cd) in the river Turag. Thus, it could serve as a reference work for future researches in Bangladesh. After calculating the WQI for the collected samples, it was determined that the water quality status at all sampling stations was extremely poor because each WQI was greater than 100. Using the Kriging method of interpolation, the encroaching WQS were predicted and visually represented using GIS maps. The findings of this study are particularly concerning, as all recorded WQS samples surpassed the standard limits. Based on these findings, we urged for the rapid deployment of proper water management practices and policies in order to safeguard and manage the water resources.

Rainfall data adjustment to Volta Redonda macro-region

Most Brazilian cities do not have a proper water and soil management system due to lack of planning in this sector and of an easy-consultation local-hydrological bibliography capable of reinforcing the future creation of a hydrological modeling. Volta Redonda macro-region's case can be added to this statistics, since it accounts for several natural hazards linked to floods and inundations in some specific locations. The aims of the present study are to descriptively analyze monthly rainfall data generated by CEMADEN's rainfall gauges and to assess whether monthly rainfall in the region adapts well to probability Gamma Distribution plots. Rainfall data from four points in Volta Redonda, Barra Mansa and Pinheiral cities, recorded for 48 months, and provided by CEMADEN, were used in the study. Gamma Distribution was adjusted to monthly rainfall data. In conclusion, the probability of having a given monthly rainfall value lower than, or equal to, that recorded for the Pinheiral – Volta Redonda – Barra Mansa conurbation area can be estimated through Gamma Distribution. Values recorded for shape (γ) and scale (β) parameters of Volta Redonda macro-region's municipalities were 1.59 and 79.30, on average, respectively.

Adoption and Performance of Direct-seeded Rice (DSR) Technology in the Philippines

Manual transplanting is the traditional rice crop establishment method in the Philippines. Consequently, crop establishment comprises over 25% of the total labor cost that drives up rice production costs in the country. The study, therefore, assessed the socioeconomic effect of direct-seeded rice (DSR) as an alternative to transplanted rice (TPR), determined the trends and patterns of adoption of DSR, examined the economic performance of DSR relative to TPR, and identified the factors that influence DSR adoption. The rice-based farm households survey data from 1996/1997 to 2016/2017 showed that the proportion of DSR farmer-adopters increased from 27% in 1996/1997 to 33–42% in 2016/2017. The adoption of DSR resulted in lower labor use and cost in crop establishment and higher labor productivity. However, lower yield and higher seed and herbicide costs relative to TPR were its major trade-offs. Despite this, the partial budget analysis showed that shifting to DSR posed incremental income, especially in rainfed areas and during the dry season, brought by labor savings that compensated for the higher seed and herbicide cost and yield penalty. Probit regression analysis revealed that area, use of seeds and pesticides, labor use, tenurial status, irrigation, and power cost significantly affected farmer adoption of DSR. Addressing the constraints, especially the yield gap between DSR and TPR, may enhance the adoption of DSR. The study suggests promoting DSR as a viable alternative to TPR in suitable areas through extension services and technology demonstrations; training and encouraging rice farmers to practice efficient weed control techniques including proper water management and land preparation, and to use technologies like drum seeder and similar technologies to save on seeds and labor; and developing rice varieties and technologies ideal for DSR.

Procedural Aspects of the Usage of Local Water Resources in Connection with the Marketing of Natural Mineral Waters and Spring Waters: Comments on the Provisions of the EU Law and Polish Law

According to EU law, proper water management is to ensure enduring and sustainable development taking into account the economic use of water resources and the availability of water in adequate quality and quantity. Within the framework of proper water management in the EU Member States, the use of local water resources for economic purposes involves state intervention in the form of granting of a permit (water-law permit or licence) for the exploitation of water intakes located in a given geographical area. However, obtaining such a permit does not entitle the undertaking to market the extracted waters as natural mineral waters or spring waters. To be able to use groundwater in bottling industry, national authorities must assess and classify the water. Of crucial importance are full water tests, which include the analysis of organoleptic, chemical and physico-chemical properties and microbiological examination of the water. As for natural mineral waters, the undertaking must also apply for official recognition of the water. The recognition procedure does not apply to spring waters.