Prop Roots Research Articles

The Great Banyan Tree

The Great Banyan Tree at the Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah is a source of attraction to all visitors. In this paper its history, importance, growth, mythology, protection and training of prop roots have been discussed. Some colour photos have been given to depict its various details.

Mangroves as Natural Shields: A Comprehensive Review of Their Role in Mitigating Natural Disasters and Conservation Strategies

Mangrove ecosystems play a crucial role in mitigating the impact of natural disasters on coastal regions worldwide. This comprehensive review paper synthesizes multidisciplinary studies to explore the contribution of mangroves in reducing the risk of catastrophes such as storm surges, tsunamis, hurricanes, and coastal erosion. By analysing the complex relationships between mangroves and natural disasters, we delve into factors such as species composition, forest structure, hydrological regimes, and coastal geomorphology. Additionally, we investigate the socioeconomic implications of mangrove conservation and restoration efforts, highlighting their potential to enhance resilience and sustainable development in coastal communities. The paper presents a detailed examination of wave characteristics, types, and attenuation mechanisms, focusing on how mangrove features such as prop roots, knee roots, and pneumatophores influence wave dissipation. We discuss various numerical and statistical models used to predict wave attenuation through mangroves, providing insights into their strengths and limitations. Furthermore, we explore global and India-specific mangrove cover status, important species, and conservation measures, including legal frameworks and initiatives by governmental and non-governmental organizations. Finally, the review underscores the urgency of conserving and restoring mangrove ecosystems to safeguard both human well-being and ecological integrity in the face of escalating climate-related threats. It advocates for evidence-based decision-making and policy development in disaster risk management and climate adaptation, emphasizing the pivotal role of mangroves as natural shields against natural calamities. Overall, this paper contributes to the understanding of mangrove-mediated hazard reduction and provides guidance for maximizing the resilience of coastal communities in an increasingly volatile world.

Small-Scale Experiments’ Ability To Augment Large Lab Testing For Designing Nature-Based And Hybrid Solutions For Coastal Flood Hazard Mitigation

Mangroves and other natural coastal defenses have the potential to augment or replace traditional engineered coastal structures in preventing adverse events such as wave overtopping. Natural, or “green” systems may reduce maintenance costs, reduce sediment erosion, and increase biodiversity compared to traditional “gray” infrastructure built from stone and concrete. To effectively inform the design of hybrid green-gray infrastructure, experimental results must be reliable, but testing at 1:1 scale is time-consuming, expensive, and available at only a few facilities worldwide. This study addresses a knowledge gap in defining the nature of the interactions between green and gray coastal defenses with a focus on overtopping and scaling experimental results. This study will compare data from mangrove-related experiments conducted at scales including 1:2 and 1:8 as part of a collaborative effort between Oregon State University (OSU) and the United States Naval Academy (USNA). The study aims to analyze this data and contribute to the joint compilation of a methodology for designing prototype-scale tests from small-scale experiments to identify the relative importance of friction and scaling effects between prototype and small-scale experiments. Testing conducted at USNA as part of this study included a 1:8 scale, 0.61m-wide (2ft.) flume that replicates the conditions of 1:2 scale experiments at Oregon State University. The experimental setup includes a model Rhizophora mangrove forest placed in front of a seawall, behind which overtopping is measured as volume per unit length either computed from overtopped water weight or directly measured by overtopped volume. Mangroves are modeled as central trunks with stilt roots, as this study focuses on the effects of the root structures on overtopping. Waves generated for the 1:8 experiments include regular waves with heights between 5cm and 10cm and periods between 1 and 2 seconds, scaled according to Froude similitude. Implications of scaled-up measurements of overtopping are also discussed.

Mangrove tree strength estimated with field experiments

Mangrove forests protect coastal communities from wind and wave energy, including during extreme events such as cyclones and tsunamis. Under extreme conditions, energy absorption often exceeds mangrove tree strength, resulting in broken stems and uprooted trees. Such damage can restructure mangrove community composition and function for decades. Predicting the vulnerability of mangrove forests to damage from external forces is critical for understanding the likelihood of forest structural change during damaging events. Despite the importance of such predictions, we have little mechanistic understanding of mangrove tree strength. We measured mangrove strength across three root types (prop roots, pneumatophores, and buttress roots) using static pulling tests. We applied a non-destructive load to mangrove trees using a winch, and related the force applied to the bending induced in the tree. Mangroves were stronger than terrestrial trees, per unit tree size, and this scaled strength was similar across mangrove species of different root types. Un-scaled mangrove strength increased exponentially with tree size, towards a strength asymptote for the largest trees. Enhanced empirical knowledge of mangrove tree strength is critical to understand the coastal protection services provided by diverse mangrove forests, particularly in a future of global climate change and increased occurrence of extreme storms.

Mangroves as Coastal Protection for Restoring Low-Energy Waterfront Property

Mangroves offer vital ecological advantages including air and water filtration, coastal and estuarine habitat provision, sediment stabilization, and wave energy dissipation. Their intricate root systems play a key role in safeguarding shorelines from tsunamis and erosive storms by dissipating wave energy. Moreover, mangroves shield against boat wakes and wind-waves, thus naturally bolstering shoreline defense. Wave dissipation is a function of forest width, tree diameter, and forest density. Restoration efforts of juvenile mangroves in Florida’s Indian River Lagoon (IRL) aim to reduce wave energy in areas vulnerable to erosion. Physical model testing of wave dissipation through mangroves is limited due to the complexity in representing the mangrove structure, where prop roots are non-uniform in both diameter and location. Previous studies have quantified wave-dissipating effects through the use of scaled and parameterized mangrove structures. This study measures the dissipation effects of live mangroves in a wave flume, forced by conditions representative of the IRL. These measurements are used to validate a parameterized dowel model. Error between wave attenuation factors for the live mangrove and dowel system was on average 2.5%. Validation of the modularized dowel system allowed for further parameterized testing to understand forest structure effects, such as sediment stabilization and wave attenuation. Maximum wave attenuation achieved in this study was 27–35% corresponding to a 40–60% reduction in wave energy depending on the configuration of the system. The wave reduction resulted in a 50–70% decrease in sediment erosion from the berm. The dowel tests indicate a target minimum thickness for mangrove root systems of 0.6 m for shoreline stabilization and restoration in the IRL.

Canopy Management of the Great Banyan Tree in Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah, India

The present communication deals with the prop root training of Great Banyan Tree (GBT) of Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden (AJCBIBG), Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. The GBT spans an area of 4.86 acres and features over 4400 aerial prop roots, covering a canopy circumference of 543 meters. Notably, the tree has survived three major cyclones, including the latest one, Amphan, on May 20, 2020, which significantly impacted a major portion of the tree. To address the damage caused by all cyclones and facilitate the expansion of the GBT, the AJCBIBG Authority is continuously working to train the prop roots for improving of canopy management using indigenous techniques developed by the staff over a decade for this age-old tree.

The Diversity and Growth-Promoting Potential of the Endophytic Fungi of Neuwiedia singapureana (Orchidaceae) in China

Neuwiedia singapureana is a rare and endangered plant of the Apostasioideae subfamily. The Apostasioideae subfamily has a unique evolutionary status, as it is considered to be the most primitive group forming the base of the Orchidaceae evolutionary tree. Therefore, N. singapureana has high scientific research and conservation value. The endophytic fungal communities associated with orchids are rich and diverse, but few studies have investigated the endophytic fungi of Neuwiedia orchid plants. In the present study, the aim was to examine the endophytic fungal community structures associated with wild N. singapureana rhizomes and normal roots in the ground and with bare prop roots in the air at two sampling sites in China. High-throughput sequencing of nuclear ribosomal DNA fragments of the internal transcribed spacer regions was conducted, and cultivable methods were adopted. A total of 2161 endophytic fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were obtained at a 97% sequence similarity threshold. The endophytic fungal diversity differed among the samples but not significantly. There were many more non-mycorrhizal endophytic fungal than orchid mycorrhizal (OM) fungal species detected in the N. singapureana orchid, about 98.33% OTUs of non-mycorrhizal fungi contrasting with 1.67% OTUs of potential orchid mycorrhizal fungi, among which Ceratobasidiaceae, Russulaceae, and Thelephoraceae were the dominant orchid mycorrhizal fungi. One culturable OM fungal Epulorhiza sp. isolated from the rhizome was capable of significantly promoting the seed germination and seedling growth of Dendrobium officinale and Epidendrum secundum orchids, respectively, with different efficiencies. These endophytic fungal strains with growth-promoting functions will provide materials for orchid conservation and for the study of the mechanisms underlying orchid symbiotic associations.

Distribution of Mangrove Species Kandelia obovata in China Using Time-series Sentinel-2 Imagery for Sustainable Mangrove Management

Mangrove management in China is converting from emphasis on occupied area to intrinsical quality. Mangrove species have varied ecological values, e.g., those having well-developed prop roots are more beneficial for coastal stabilization. The detailed distribution of mangrove species on a national scale remains a challenge, impeding species-specific applications in the ecology and management of mangroves, as well as evaluations of related Sustainable Development Goals. Although local-scale studies have explored various data sources, the variability of plant phenology is the key factor preventing their generalization from local areas to large latitudinal spans (e.g., the coast of China). The separability time period, defined by a separability metric for each scene of the image time series, provides a potential way to tackle the aforementioned problem. We conducted a case study on mapping Kandelia obovata in China based on Sentinel-2 time-series imagery, as it is a representative native mangrove species with the largest latitudinal span and tolerance to low temperatures. The proposed approach considered the separability between K. obovata and its typical co-occurring mangrove species, as well as that between K. obovata and salt marshes. The overall accuracy of the generated K. obovata map in China for 2020 reached 88.5% based on independently collected samples. The proposed approach is transferable to diverse mangrove species that inhabit a vast latitudinal span. The implications for sustainable mangrove management were discussed to reveal the benefits to precise management of mangroves, accurate biomass and carbon estimations accounting for species differences, and effective evaluation of mangrove ecosystem services.

Morphological and anatomical studies of Conamomum vietnamense N.S. Lý & T.S. Hoang: An endemic plant from Vietnam

Abstract. Nhi NTT, Chen TV, Lam DNX, Nguyen DD, Dinh QD, Linh NHK. 2023. Morphological and anatomical studies of Conamomum vietnamense N.S. Lý & T.S. Hoang: An endemic plant from Vietnam. Biodiversitas 24: 5022-5034. Conamomum vietnamense N.S. Lý & T.S. Hoang (Zingiberaceae) is an endemic plant from Vietnam. Information on the anatomical structure of leaves, roots, rhizomes, and the powder characteristics of C. vietnamense has not been reported. This study aimed to combine macro- and micro-morphological analysis to identify C. vietnamense accurately. Twenty fresh plants were randomly collected from the wild habitats in Vietnam were used for the study. Macromorphological characteristics were observed and compared to earlier research. Iodine green-carmine staining was then used to histologically examine the leaves, roots, and rhizomes. The powdered rhizome and leaf features were described via a microscope. Macromorphologically, C. vietnamense is characterized by its stout stilt roots, short petioles, oblong-lanceolate leaf blades with lightly plicate, inflorescences with obovoid, and narrowly ovate bracts, hairy underside bracteoles, bilobed calyx, yellow flowers with broadly obovate, glabrous, trilobed labellum. Micromorphologically, the anatomical features of leaves, roots, and rhizomes have similarities with those of Zingiberaceae species. The tetracytic stomata was observed on both leaf surfaces. The stomatal indexes on the abaxial and adaxial surfaces of the leaves are 8.81±0.55% and 0.1±0.06%, respectively. Calcium oxalate crystals were found in the leaf. Starch grains and reticulate xylem vessels were present only in rhizome powder. These findings are important characteristics for identifying C. vietnamense.

Associative learning in the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora

Associative learning, such as classical or operant conditioning, has never been unequivocally associated with animals outside bilatarians, e.g., vertebrates, arthropods, or mollusks. Learning modulates behavior and is imperative for survival in the vast majority of animals. Obstacle avoidance is one of several visually guided behaviors in the box jellyfish, Tripedalia cystophora Conant, 1897 (Cnidaria: Cubozoa), and it is intimately associated with foraging between prop roots in their mangrove habitat. The obstacle avoidance behavior (OAB) is a species-specific defense reaction (SSDR) for T.cystophora, so identifying such SSDR is essential for testing the learning capacity of a given animal. Using the OAB, we show that box jellyfish performed associative learning (operant conditioning). We found that the rhopalial nervous system is the learning center and that T.cystophora combines visual and mechanical stimuli during operant conditioning. Since T.cystophora has a dispersed central nervous system lacking a conventional centralized brain, ourwork challenges the notion that associative learning requires complex neuronal circuitry. Moreover, since Cnidaria is the sister group to Bilateria, it suggests the intriguing possibility that advanced neuronal processes, like operant conditioning, are a fundamental property of all nervous systems.

Human–environment interactions at Ta'ab Nuk Na, a submerged Maya salt works site in Belize

Abstract Sea-level rise and settlement are investigated at Ta'ab Nuk Na, an ancient Maya salt works in Belize, by examining samples from wooden posts and marine sediment. The samples included Post 145 of Building B and the Nunavut beam, along with marine sediment columns cut from beside both wooden posts. The sediment columns were sampled at 2 cm intervals. Loss-on ignition confirmed the presence of organic material. Identifying the organic content involved removing nonorganic material from the sediment and sorting the organic material under magnification. This procedure established that most of the organic material was red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle). Red mangroves tolerate salt water, but under conditions of sea-level rise, the plants grow vertically to keep their leaves above water. Sediment, leaves, and detritus trapped in the prop roots form mangrove peat, which serves as a proxy for sea-level rise. AMS dating of fine red mangrove roots determined that the local sea levels rose at Ta'ab Nuk Na throughout the Late Classic period and continued into the Postclassic period. Radiocarbon dates obtained from the wood-post samples yielded Late Classic–period dates. Comparing the radiocarbon dates from the wooden posts and the sediment core samples determined that the site was abandoned before the rising seas flooded the area. Evidently, sea-level rise did not play a role in site abandonment.

Variability in methane emissions from stems and buttress roots of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza trees in a subtropical mangrove forest

AbstractTrees in wetlands emit a significant amount of methane (CH4) into the atmosphere which is produced in the soil where anaerobic conditions prevail. However, only very few studies have considered the role of trees in the CH4 budget of mangrove forests. How tree CH4 emissions () vary between and within individuals, and how these emissions vary with the day/night alternation and the tidal cycle, have not yet been elucidated. We measured from buttress roots and stems on individuals of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza of different sizes. We also measured from trees and sediments over a 24‐h cycle. Higher was measured on the buttress roots than on the stems, with a decreasing trend with height along the stems on a majority of trees. exhibited large variations over a 24‐h cycle which were observed for the first time in this study. from sediment was twice higher at low tide compared to just before or after the flood period. from non‐submerged stem positions at high tide was four times higher during the day than during the night. On buttress roots and on stem portion which were submerged, high were measured at the beginning of the ebb tide even at night. A better understanding of variability from mangrove trees and its controls, at different time scales and along spatial gradients is needed for accurate estimation of CH4 budgets of mangrove forests.

Elevated CO2 increases biomass of Sorghum bicolor green prop roots under drought conditions via soluble sugar accumulation and photosynthetic activity.

Elevated [CO2 ] (E[CO2 ]) mitigates agricultural losses of C4 plants under drought. Although several studies have described the molecular responses of the C4 plant species Sorghum bicolor during drought exposure, few have reported the combined effects of drought and E[CO2 ] (E[CO2 ]/D) on the roots. A previous study showed that, among plant organs, green prop roots (GPRs) under E[CO2 ]/D presented the second highest increase in biomass after leaves compared with ambient [CO2 ]/D. GPRs are photosynthetically active and sensitive to drought. To understand which mechanisms are involved in the increase in biomass of GPRs, we performed transcriptome analyses of GPRs under E[CO2 ]/D. Whole-transcriptome analysis revealed several pathways altered under E[CO2 ]/D, among which photosynthesis was strongly affected. We also used previous metabolome data to support our transcriptome data. Activities associated with photosynthesis and central metabolism increased, as seen by the upregulation of photosynthesis-related genes, a rise in glucose and polyol contents, and increased contents of chlorophyll a and carotenoids. Protein-protein interaction networks revealed that proliferation, biogenesis, and homeostasis categories were enriched and contained mainly upregulated genes. The findings suggest that the previously reported increase in GPR biomass of plants grown under E[CO2 ]/D is mainly attributed to glucose and polyol accumulation, as well as photosynthesis activity and carbon provided by respiratory CO2 refixation. Our findings reveal that an intriguing and complex metabolic process occurs in GPRs under E[CO2 ]/D, showing the crucial role of these organs in plant drought /tolerance.

Effect of Mangrove Complexity and Environmental Variables on Fish Assemblages Across a Tropical Estuarine Channel of the Mexican Pacific

It is assumed that the structural complexity of mangroves plays a determining role on fish assemblages in that ecosystem. However, there is limited evidence for how the interaction between the mangroves and environmental variables affects the assemblage structure and composition, abundance and biomass of fish. The main goal of this study was to test whether fish assemblages vary between sectors of mangroves located at different distances from the mouth of the estuary and between root microhabitats and seasons, and to analyze the role of environmental characteristics in these variations. In the Boca del Cielo-San José estuarine channel (Chiapas, Mexico), fish assemblages were sampled during high tide during 2019–2020, within mangroves in three sectors of the channel (lower, middle and upper), while mangrove complexity index, dominance of stilt roots or pneumatophores, litterfall production and six physicochemical parameters of the water were measured. Our results showed that fish assemblages varied significantly between sectors, microhabitats and seasons. Lower sector sites dominated by stilt root microhabitats presented the highest species richness, abundance and biomass of fish, while more than 90% of the juvenile fish in the samples were associated with pneumatophores. We found that the interaction of salinity, depth, distance from the estuary mouth, litter production, and dominance of aerial roots or pneumatophores explained patterns of fish abundance and biomass in mangroves. Our observations coincide with other studies in emphasizing the importance of mangroves as nursery and feeding sites for fish, but whose structure is defined by local variables and factors, which must be taken into account in research and management programs.

Distribution of mangroves with different aerial root morphologies at accretion and erosion sites in Ca Mau Province, Vietnam

Aerial roots are a vital feature that allow mangroves to survive in anaerobic and unstable soil conditions. Mangrove species have different aerial root characteristics and show their own site-specific distribution. The distribution of three types of aerial roots with different morphological characteristics was investigated between accretion and erosion sites in Ca Mau, Vietnam. Stilt roots, pneumatophores and knee roots were the three main aerial root types in the study area. Stilt roots of Rhizophora apiculata BL. and pneumatophores of Avicennia species were the two most abundant root types at the study sites, dominating erosion and accretion sites, respectively. Stilt roots had a higher number of primary roots in seaward plots than in landward plots (p < 0.05), supporting the ability of R. apiculata to withstand erosion of the surface. Tidal erosion moved away sediment and exposed roots, which resulted in higher aboveground stilt root height in seaward plots than in landward plots at erosion sites (p < 0.05). The higher density and biomass of pneumatophores in seaward plots than those in landward plots at accretion sites (p < 0.05) confirmed the adaptation of Avicennia to newly accreted sites where tidal inundation and anaerobic conditions limited mangrove growth. The density of A. alba decreased with the distance from the sea at both erosion and accretion sites, implying that this species was a pioneer species adapted to newly accreted sites or disturbed sites among mangrove species. Bruguiera parviflora with knee roots was distributed in more stable conditions. Mangrove species with different root types displayed a zonal distribution with increasing distance from the shoreline. This distribution reflects mangrove species adaptabilities and species-specific roles in the context of coastal processes and site conditions, which should be considered in coastal mangrove restoration.

When are buttresses and stilt roots necessary for a tree in terra‐firme Amazonian forests?

AbstractDeterminants of the occurrence of buttress and stilt roots are still poorly understood. These may be linked to individual's properties as a way to increase stability as trees get higher, to environmental factors that increase falling risks or interactions of both. We took advantage of a large dataset (presence of buttress, stilt roots, and tree diameter in 8415 trees from 35 1‐ha plots in central Amazonia) to investigate how tree and environmental properties interact to determine the occurrence of support structures. We also made detailed measurements of allometry and canopy size in 67 trees of two dominant species. The probability of occurrence of support structures was modeled with multiple logistic regressions and boosted regression trees. We established a best‐fitting subset model based on AIC ranking using unsupervised model selection. At the landscape scale, support structures were more common in large trees (bstd = 0.88, p &lt; .001) and valleys (bstd = −0.09, p &lt; .01), due to species turnover along topography and also due to intraspecific variation in the development of buttresses within species, linked to interactions of tree size and topography. The relationship between height and diameter (Height:Diameter) was the most important determinant of buttress occurrence (bstd = −1.57, p &lt; .001). We conclude that less stable soils select a higher frequency of trees with support structures. However, coordinated allometric relationships among stem and crown sizes also influence the need of support structures. Thus, the presence of support structures depends on the interplay of individual plant's allometry and environmentally imposed conditions of instability.Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.

Keanekaragaman Morfologis Sukun [Artocarpus altilis (Park.) Fosberg. var. non-seminiferus] Di Daerah Banyumas

Breadfruit [Artocarpus altilis (Park.) Fosberg] is a plant that have different morphological variations in each region. The Banyumas area is an area that is very suitable for the growth of breadfruit. This study was aimed to determine the diversity of breadfruit plants based on their morphological characteristics. This research was conducted using a survey method, then the data were analyzed descriptively. The research variable was the morphological characteristics of the breadfruit plant, the parameters were the morphological of the canopy, buttress roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits. The results showed that the morphological variations of breadfruit were found in the shape of the canopy varies, namely broad pyramid, pyramid, ovoid, round, and irregular, some have buttress roots and none, fruit shape varies, namely round and oval. Leaf blade length varies between 26-56 cm, leaf blade width varies between 20-45 cm, leaf stalk length varies between 3-6 cm, leaf shape is ovoid, upper leaf surface is smooth, lower leaf surface is rough, leaf edge incised, the tip of the leaf is tapered, the base of the leaf is wedged, the color of the leaf is dark green. Male flower length varies between 9-17 cm, male flower color varies, namely light green and brownish, male flower shape resembles a club, female flower diameter varies between 5-6 cm, female flower shape is round, female flower color is light green. Fruit weight varies between 450-1250 g, fruit diameter varies between 9-18 cm, fruit skin color is green, flesh color is white to yellowish white, flesh texture is smooth, fruit skin pattern is polygonal, and seeds are round, black.

Legacy of “New Normal” Plastics and “New Nitrogen” in the Cyanotoxin Footprint in Mangrove Ecosystems

In a paradigm shift in plastic wastes due to the COVID-19 pandemic, wetlands such as mangroves are threatened by a new form of pollution, plastics, on top of the eutrophication of estuarine waters due to nitrogen and phosphorus wastes/effluents that lead to cyanobacterial proliferation. Both plastic and nutrient pollution lead to prosperity of cyanotoxin-producing cyanobacteria that flourish in both and disperse leading to the detriment of fauna and flora in the mangrove ecosystem due to resulting toxicities. Although cyanotoxins are still a relatively poorly studied phenomenon in mangroves, their presence does create a focus of attention due to biofilm formation and the resultant flotation and sinking properties that are linked to cyanobacterial mats on plastic debris. Sri Lanka, being the first country in the world to conserve all its mangrove wetlands, does have a responsibility to prevent the invasion of plastics to this protected ecosystem, and binding with the Ramsar Convention, precluding plastic waste and their concomitant footprint, is a task at hand to the relative authorities. The path ahead mandates that we study the properties of plastics for cyanobacterial proliferation, biofilm formation, the fates of such plastics (flotation, dispersal and sinking), the cyanotoxin production changes that are attributed—or linked—to plastic pollution and the resultant impacts on mangrove ecosystems. Cyanotoxins are long-lived, and it is paramount that we find the necessary mechanisms to eliminate or curtail their production in mangrove ecosystems while establishing surveillance and monitoring of both the producers and the harmful agents. Cyanobacteria although vehicles for nitrogen fixation and replenishing of nutrients to an N-depleted ecosystem such as the mangroves, could lead to enhancements in cyanotoxins production. However, this phenomenon remains ambiguous and poorly studied in applied phycology in relation to mangroves. “New normal” plastics are lodged mostly on the surfaces of bark, prop roots, and pneumatophores, which are the localities where the highest level of new nitrogen is fixed, and this may lead to the proliferation of N-fixing, cyanotoxin-producing cyanobacteria, which may have repercussions on both flora and fauna of mangroves. Therefore, it is crucial that we monitor plastic pollution and find mechanisms for sanitizing plastics-imprinted mangroves to lessen the harmful footprint resulting from plastic overload.

Bryophytes of mangroves of Bocas del Toro, Panama

This is the first survey of bryophyte diversity in the mangroves of Panama. The study was done in the mangroves of Bocas del Toro Province, Panama, in September 2016 and, July, May and August 2017. Bryophytes were collected from prop or stilt roots of mangroves, the mid-lower part of the trunks and the lower branches. In areas inundated at high tide, additional samples were collected on the cortex of palms, its rootlets, other angiosperm trees and from decomposing logs. Twenty-six species of liverworts and seven of mosses were identified. The most diverse and predominant liverwort family was the Lejeuneaceae with twenty-two species and two varieties and, among the mosses, the Calymperaceae with three species. Species affinities with other tropical mangroves were analyzed and liverworts were found to be the dominant element. Among the liverworts collected, two are new reports for Panama: Ceratolejeunea confusa and Frullanoides mexicana. Additional surveys of the cryptogamic vegetation of Panamanian mangroves are urgently needed due to the accelerated deforestation caused by anthropic activities and the potential loss of important biodiversity.

Are urban mangroves emerging hotspots of non-indigenous species? A study on the dynamics of macrobenthic fouling communities in fringing red mangrove prop roots

Urbanization represents a radical transformation of natural habitats that alters all the biotic and abiotic properties governing ecosystems. Urban expansion often results in oversimplified communities, where most specialists decline or disappear and a few generalist or exotic species become dominant. The consequences of urban expansion in mangrove forests are understudied, although these systems have been altered by humans for centuries and the growth of human population in tropical coasts is expected to be faster than in higher latitudes. To assess the importance of indigenous and non-indigenous species in driving temporal and spatial changes in community structure of red-mangrove prop-root macrobenthic communities, we studied heavily altered mangrove forests from two bays from the Caribbean coast of Colombia in 2005 and 2021. In all places/periods, the community richness was low, a few taxa were dominant (11 taxa, out of 40, comprised ~ 90% of the total abundance) and 35% of those taxa were non-indigenous species whose presence is related with known stressors in urbanized systems. Hence, call for efforts to assess whether urban mangrove forests are emerging as hotspots for non-indigenous biota. Community structure did not change within or between bays, there was a clear, significant turnover of core species between 2005 and 2021, with non-indigenous species playing a prominent role in this variability. This was puzzling—ecological theory asserts that the abundance of a species is related to their permanence: core species are relatively stable through time, while rare species appear or disappear—but this may not apply for stressed communities influenced by non-indigenous biota.