Promote Youth Employment Research Articles

Hard work and hazard: Young people and agricultural commercialisation in Africa

An emerging orthodoxy supports the proposition that the rural economy – built around agriculture but encompassing much more – will serve as sweet spot of employment opportunities for many millions of young people into the foreseeable future. However, our understanding of how rural young people in Africa take advantage of processes of rural transformation or engage with the rural economy is limited. Drawing on qualitative research conducted with 117 rural young people in three country contexts (Ghana, Zimbabwe and Tanzania), this paper reports the findings on the steps and pathways through which young people construct livelihoods in hotspots of agricultural commercialisation. Overall what emerges from a diversity of backgrounds, experiences and pathways is that the commercialised rural economy within which they operate offer them a variety of income earning opportunities. Family and broader social relations are key in enabling young people to access the needed resources in the form of land, capital, and inputs to begin their ventures. Between family and rental markets, there is little evidence that young people’s engagement with crop production is limited by their inability to access land. We also find evidence of asset accumulation by young people in the form of housing, furniture and savings among others, which reflects the combination of relatively dynamic rural economies, enabling social relations, and hard work. However, for many it is a struggle to stay afloat, requiring effort, persistence, and an ability to navigate setbacks and hazards. Our findings challenge a number of assumptions underlying policy and public discourse around rural young people and employment in Africa. We highlight some key implications for policy seeking to promote youth employment in rural Africa. • It is widely accepted that rural areas will provide employment for Africa's young people for decades to come. • There is little evidence about how young people actually engage with the rural economy in hotspots of agricultural commercialisation. • Data from Ghana, Tanzania and Zimbabwe challenge some key elements of public and policy discourse around rural youth in SSA.

Promoting Youth Employment through Information and Communication Technologies in Vocational Education in Tanzania

Africa is the most youthful continent in the world with approximetly 20% of the global youth population and is expected to increase by 42% by the end of 2030. This great number of youth which can be used as a huge asset for the country’s economic growth and development is largely unemployed. As a result, governments have introduced Vocational Education and Training (VET) by providing occupation oriented trainings in a bid to reduce unemployment amongst youth. Despite these efforts, the majority of VET graduates remain unemployed due to the inadequate employability skills needed in the current job market. This study implemented a project aiming at enhancing employability skills through ICT in four centres: Nangwa VTC, Manyara VTC, Arusha VTC, Mto wa Mbu FDC, and Ketumbeine secondary school with a total of 100 students and 20 teachers. Through participating in the project, it was expected that students would gain the ICT skills as well as the 21st-Century skills required in the current workplace. At the end of the project, an evaluation was conducted using a self-administered survey where a total of 80 students were involved in the four centres. Moreover, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), non-participatory observation, and documentary review were adopted as qualitative data instruments. It was found that that students’ perceived competence and skills levels on technology knowledge of multimedia as moderate (M=3.63) while that of CISCO were found to be high with 76 students graduated and obtained a CISCO certification. In terms of the 21st-Century skills, it was found that students’ self-reported confidence levels in all four 21st-Century skills domains were found to be high with collaboration skills (M=4.5) being the highest followed by communication skills (M=4.26), leadership (4.20) and creativity and innovation (4.06). Nonetheless, the lowest 21st-Century skills element was critical thinking skills (M=3.9). The findings from this study show that with some planned activities within colleges, students can easily acquire the needed employability skills. The implication of these findings are discussed.

Future aspirations of rural-urban young migrants in Accra, Ghana

ABSTRACT The futures that young people imagine for themselves should serve as a guidepost to youth employment programmes. Drawing on data from interviews conducted with 30 young migrants in Accra, this article examines the futures young migrants imagine for themselves and the ways they are working to realise their aspirations. Findings suggest that while the young migrants were engaged in some economic activities in the urban informal economy, they regarded these as a means to transit towards their imagined futures. They had divergent plans for the future, whether to further their education and gain professional salaried jobs, or establish their own small-scale businesses. Nonetheless, their limited financial resources and social networks may affect transition to these imaginary futures. Engagement in paid work, saving groups and leisure-based activities are key activities young migrants engage in efforts to reach their plans. These findings have important implications for policy seeking to promote youth employment in Africa.

Is Long-Term Non-employment a Lifetime Disease?

Long-term non-employment (which is not long-term unemployment) has been almost neglected in the academic literature, long term here implying up to 15–25 years of absence from the labour market, let alone full and definitive exit. This study takes the lead from a previous paper (2017) in which the magnitude of long term non-employment (LTNE) and its duration are estimated from administrative databases of Italy, Germany and Spain (Contini B, et al., IZA discussion papers, no.11167, 2017). In all three countries long-term nonemployment appears to be a lifetime disease for many workers who drop out of the (official) labour market and never return, left unsheltered from the welfare institutions. The main task of this work is an analytical exploration of the factors leading to LTNE development in Italy, estimated at almost 1.3 million male individuals (about as many as the officially unemployed), average duration exceeding 12 years. An econometric exploration indicates that it is often more profitable for employers to hire new unexperienced young workers in place of confirming individuals already onthe-job, leading to excessive turnover, long-term non-employment and waste of human capital. There are strong policy implications of this result as the EU Commission has for many years advocated low wages for new entrants and high contract flexibility as major instruments to promote youth employment.

An Analysis of the Determinants of Youth Employment in Rwanda

The main objective of this research is to analyze the determinants of youth employment in Rwanda from the point of view of the demand, supply and the general labor market. An analysis of the data shows that a skill gap is most critical for employment creation and a transition from school-to-work seems problematic. Further, questions remain about what factors influence youth employment in Rwanda and how youth employment is related to poverty reduction and distribution of income. The study uses a multinomial logit model to shed light on the determinants of youth employment status in the country using data from the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR). It verifies how the current status of youth employment in Rwanda has evolved over time and based on its findings it provides policy recommendations to promote youth employment. The research finds that youth employment in Rwanda is influenced by gender, age, education and geographical location. The finding of this research has implications for the youth unemployment in Kurdistan Region.

Explaining Non-Employment Magnitude and Duration: The Case of Italy

In the past 25 years a vast number of Italian workers have become jobless for long periods of time, often dropping out of the labor market and becoming long-term inactives for the rest of their life. This process has long roots in the past and has been fuelled by Italy’s poor economic performance. We intend to analyse its nature and derive policy implications for the years to come. We estimate long-term non-employment and its duration by means of Italian longitudinal databases of administrative origin. Long-term non-employment of men stands at 1.6 million individuals in 2012, about the size of male official unemployment, its average duration exceeding 14 years. We present a micro-econometric exploration of the underlying process. The main driving element works via a substitution effect: the relative cost of new entrants vs. that of retaining individuals already on-the-job has often been too high and widely responsible for such developments as it provides the employers with an incentive to layoff and fill the vacancy with a new entrant. Additional explanation is provided by the wide utilization of temporary and flexible contracts and by reasonable proxies of individual characteristics. Our conclusions indicate important drawbacks in the strategy advocated for many years by the EU Commission to promote youth employment.

Explaining Non-Employment Magnitude and Duration: The Case of Italy

In the past 25 years a vast number of Italian workers have become jobless for long periods of time, often dropping out of the labor market and becoming long-term inactives for the rest of their life. This process has long roots in the past and has been fuelled by Italy's poor economic performance. We intend to analyse its nature and derive policy implications for the years to come. We estimate long-term non-employment and its duration by means of Italian longitudinal databases of administrative origin. Long-term non-employment of men stands at 1.6 million individuals in 2012, about the size of male official unemployment, its average duration exceeding 14 years. We present a micro-econometric exploration of the underlying process. The main driving element works via a substitution effect: the relative cost of new entrants vs. that of retaining individuals already on-the-job has often been too high and widely responsible for such developments as it provides the employers with an incentive to layoff and fill the vacancy with a new entrant. Additional explanation is provided by the wide utilization of temporary and flexible contracts and by reasonable proxies of individual characteristics. Our conclusions indicate important drawbacks in the strategy advocated for many years by the EU Commission to promote youth employment.

Promoting youth employment through multi-organizational governance

Youth unemployment is a major challenge in Europe and the most important EU-level policy response to youth unemployment is the Youth Guarantee, which was adopted in 2013. Public employment services are the central bodies implementing the Youth Guarantee in most EU member states, but they often act in partnership with other organizations. This paper examines the importance of the national organization that takes the lead in the multi-organizational networks responsible for implementing the Youth Guarantee. The author also analyses the best governance arrangements to produce the intended policy outcomes.

SCENARIOS FOR REDUCING YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT AND PROMOTING SUSTAINABILITY IN THE REGIONS OF LATVIA

In foreign studies Latvia is positioned as a “depressive” region in the year 2030, which will have an insufficient population of young people. Thus, Latvia as a country with a business-friendly environment will not be able to be competitive in relation to other European countries and the flow of investment will be at risk, as well as passed on other, more competitive and better developed regions in demographic terms. Therefore, it is pertinent to analyse the trends in youth employment in Latvia and to work on Latvia’s economic development. There is necessity to promote human involvement in the labour market and to reduce their departure to foreign countries. It is important to draw attention to these challenges and to find answers to the questions: Which of the youth employment-promoting scenarios can be realised in Latvia’s regions in the near future? Which of the scenarios is the most appropriate for the development of Latvia’s regions? Which of the scenarios are more focused on the interests of all parties involved? Which scenario will ensure the country’s economic development? Four possible scenarios for promoting youth employment in Latvia were evaluated by experts. The experts were asked to assess the criteria for each scenario by hierarchy analysis. The most optimal scenario for promoting youth employment in Latvia in the experts’ opinion is the scenario with EU participation. The main idea of the scenario is the effective use of European Union (EU) funding for youth mobility in the labour market organised by the State Employment Agency.

Employment and knowledge: Prospects for HE graduates’ employability in knowledge-intensive services

The tertiarization of the Portuguese economy is already very evident in the sectorial composition of employment. In 2013, the service sectors represented in Portugal 65% of total employment. Although the service sectors have also been affected by the economic crisis, its resilience to the negative effects of the crisis on labour market was much higher than other sectors. From the wide range of services, knowledge-intensive services (KIS) were those that registered the highest increase in employment between 2008 and 2013.
 The study presented here discusses the role that knowledge-intensive services, in particular knowledge-intensive market services (excluding the financial services) and high-tech knowledge-intensive services, can have in promoting youth employment in Portugal. The increasing outsourcing, on a global scale, of complex and highly qualified activities has stimulated the rapid growth of these sectors. The competition for talent, although intense and global, is opening up new job opportunities for young higher education graduates.
 The study uses statistical data to analyse the recent evolution of employment in these two sectors, its variation by levels of education and age groups, and their contribution to total employment. Based on the CEDEFOP projections for Portugal, we discuss the potential employment opportunities estimated in KIS up to 2025. This analysis is complemented with qualitative data on changing job and skills’ requirements in these sectors, collected through literature reviewing and a set of interviews with the industry and employers’ associations.
 Main research findings indicate a significant potential for job creation in KIS over the next decade and a growing demand for qualifications. Medium-level qualifications will tend to prevail and about a 1/3 of the jobs will require higher education. However, the digital revolution is changing the way services are designed and delivered to customers, requiring new service models. Business services are becoming more technology-dependent or, at least, more technology-enabled. Also the intangible nature of KIS requires a strong co-production with costumers and open modes of innovation which are increasingly demanding a broad set of soft and hard-technical skills.
 Preparing young graduates with the right mix of skills seems essential to take advantage of the number of jobs the KIS tend to create, especially when youth unemployment is high. This study seeks to contribute to the debate on how higher education can improve the employability of its graduates by exploring statistic data on recent employment trends and early identifying labour market dynamics on a sectorial basis.

Caractéristiques et déterminants du chômage des jeunes au Cameroun: le rôle prépondérant du diplôme et du sexe

RésuméParadoxalement, le diplôme ne préserve pas les jeunes du chômage qui touche plus les femmes que les hommes sur le marché du travail au Cameroun. A la lumière de ce fait stylisé, l'objectif de cet article est d'analyser les déterminants du chômage des jeunes. En faisant bon usage des micro‐données de la deuxième enquête sur l'emploi et le secteur informel, cette étude va au‐delà de l'analyse logistique simple en adoptant des techniques de décomposition de Blinder et Oaxaca pour analyser les déterminants de l'écart de chômage selon le genre et le diplôme. Les résultats révèlent notamment le rôle déterminant du niveau d'instruction, du sexe féminin et du milieu de résidence dans l'aggravation du chômage des jeunes au Cameroun. Toutefois, l'analyse infirme l'hypothèse de discrimination du genre à l'embauche quand les différences de productivité entre les diplômés et les non diplômés, les avantages liés au diplôme ainsi que les désavantages associés au non diplôme expliquent les disparités de chômage entre ces deux derniers groupes. Ces principaux résultats débouchent sur quelques recommandations de politiques en faveur de la promotion de l'emploi des jeunes.

Promoting Youth Employment in Benue State, Nigeria: A Study of Open Apprenticeship Scheme of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE)

Youth unemployment has remained one of the present and steady social problems that characterise Nigeria as a developing economy. Measures to address this social problem have featured prominently in the development agenda of successive governments. However, the National Directorate of Employment (NDE), established by the Babangida Administration in 1986, comes across as a consistent public policy on employment and wealth creation that has managed to endure over the years. Since its establishment, a number of schemes have been designed and implemented under the directorate to combat youth unemployment. One of such schemes is the National Open Apprenticeship Scheme (NOAS). This study was undertaken to interrogate the implementation of the scheme in Benue State located in the North Central geographical zone of Nigeria. Within the framework of the neo-classical model of economic thought, these programmes of action are understood as a deliberate policy intervention by government to correct distortions in resource allocation occasioned by the laissez-faire market mechanism. The study employed both analytical and empirical approaches. Whereas the former reflects on state of the research in existing literature, the latter utilized survey research to probe into the implementation of NOAS. Findings reveal that NDE skills development programmes in Benue State is an initiative that can address youth unemployment. However, the objective of enhancing job opportunities through the skills acquisition of NAOS leaves much to be desired. The study recommends among others that; funding of NDE should be improved upon, the scope of NAOS should be expanded to accommodate graduates of tertiary institutions, and the general policy framework on education be reviewed to create a synergy between the formal school system and the job market in Benue State and by extension, Nigeria.

Tracer Study of Employed Candidates in Rajiv Yuva Kiranalu

Employment provision for the youth has been and will remain a challenge in this country. In this context, the Government of Andhra Pradesh has launched Rajiv Yuva Kiranalu to promote youth employment with an innovative public private partnership model. Its uniqueness lies in going beyond the usual provision of skill development to the unemployed by placing the trained candidates through the private training providers. Although the objective of this programme is to promote sustainable employment, this report argues that the payment model to private players adopted gives them an incentive to look for low paying jobs and resultantly we find a higher drop out rate of candidates from employment. In this context, this report suggests an alternative salaries linked payment model, an MIS system for informed choice by candidates and a novel programme for rural self-employment to decrease the drop out rate and promote gainful employment amongst the unemployed youth.

Youth Skills Development, Informal Employment and the Enabling Environment in Kenya : Trends and Tensions

Youth skills development, poverty and unemployment are prominent global concerns. Pressure to expand post-basic education in countries with low to moderate enrollment and concerns of high youth unemployment have encouraged the development of a “skills for jobs” education reform discourse. The discourse argues that post-basic education focus on skills development with the hypothesis that such a focus will help reduce youth unemployment. Following post-election violence in 2007, promoting youth employment has become an increasingly important policy issue in Kenya. In 2011 nearly 40% of Kenyan youth were neither in school or working, and the informal sector accounts for nearly 80% of jobs. Despite the complex and unclear relationship between education and employment, post-basic education in youth polytechnics and skills development programs have been identified as potential solutions to employability challenges facing Kenya’s youth. This paper identifies some of the possibilities and limitations of these reforms and of the broader “skills for jobs” discourse. The paper presents critiques and perceptions influencing recent post-basic education reforms, outlines factors in the economy and the non-economic environment which mediate the relationship between education and employment in Kenya, identifies tensions involved in efforts designed to prepare youth for informal sector employment and discusses two recent reforms designed to provide “skills for jobs.”

School to Work Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Overview

While youth issues are subject of growing attention in the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) region, data for indicators relating specifically to youth employment remain scarce in most SSA countries. There is therefore limited empirical basis for formulating policies and programs promoting youth employment and successful school to work transitions. The study is aimed at beginning to fill this gap by generating and analyzing a set of youth education and employment indicators based on World Bank survey data for a subset of 13 countries in the Sub Saharan Africa region. Study findings highlight the disadvantaged position of young people in the labor force in the region. They face much higher levels of unemployment than their adult counterparts or young people in developed economies, and are much more concentrated in low skill and unstable informal sector work. Youth never attending school emerge as a particular policy concern. Uneducated youth appear to be stuck not only in low income jobs but also face a high risk of unemployment. The study places particular emphasis on measuring the initial transition from school to work for different groups of young people, and on identifying the factors affecting this transition. Results indicate that the average duration of the transition is very long in many SSA countries, suggesting young people in these countries are faced with substantial labor market entry problems upon leaving the school system.

The Twin Challenges of Child Labor and Youth Employment in Ethiopia

Ethiopia accounts for the largest youth population in Sub-Saharan Africa and the lack of employment opportunities for Ethiopian young people is among the critical developing challenges facing the country. The specific factors affecting youth employment in Ethiopia have received little research attention. There is therefore limited empirical basis for formulating policies and programs promoting youth employment and successful school to work transitions. This study is aimed at beginning to fill this gap by analyzing a set of youth employment indicators drawn primarily from the 2001 Ethiopia Labor Force Survey. The study looks specifically at the labor market outcomes of young people and key factors influencing these outcomes, including early labor market entry and human capital accumulation. It also examines the process of labor market entry, and, for those who attended school, the duration of the transition from school to work.

Creative Networks in Regional Australia

Much recent academic and public discourse has centred on the fate of non-metropolitan Australia under successive federal neoliberal reform agendas. This paper discusses creative networks in non-metropolitan areas in light of this, with a focus on issues of youth unemployment and out-migration. First, it draws on research on creative industry development on the New South Wales Far North Coast to assess the efficacy of creative networks as a source of new job growth in rural areas. Second, and more broadly, the paper discusses the North Coast Entertainment Industry Association (NCEIA), a nascent creative network in the region. Several observations are drawn from its experiences. Creative networks in non-metropolitan areas face problems of informal and itinerant membership, and anti-socialisation attitudes, Yet they appear to have a substantial role in improving the conditions of viability for vulnerable cultural producers. When conceived as part of interventionist strategies to promote youth employment and to stem the youth exodus from rural areas, they may also have sociodemographic implications beyond the scope of their original intent.