Swimming Program Research Articles

Effects of a 14-Week Swimming Program on Aerobic Fitness in College Recreational Swimmers

Effects of a 14-Week Swimming Program on Aerobic Fitness in College Recreational Swimmers

Blood pressure rise with swimming versus walking in older women: the Sedentary Women Exercise Adherence Trial 2 (SWEAT 2)

Swimming is often recommended in the prevention and treatment of hypertension. Few studies have investigated the effect of swimming training on blood pressure (BP). Our objective was to evaluate 6 months of supervised moderate swimming or walking on BP in previously sedentary, normotensive, older women. Women aged 50-70 years (n = 116) were randomly assigned to a supervised 6-month swimming or walking programme. They were further randomized to receive usual care or a behavioural intervention package. Exercise comprised 3 sessions/week with a warm-up, cool down, and 30-min of moderate intensity walking or swimming. BP was recorded for 20 min supine, and 5 min standing. Assessments were made at 0 and 6 months. At baseline, mean supine BP (+/- SD) was 115.7 +/- 1.3/66.8 +/- 0.7 mmHg. Swimming improved swim distance by 78.1 m (29.3%) [95% confidence interval (CI); 66.7, 89.4] and walk time by 0.58 min (3.8%) (0.41, 0.74). Walking decreased walk time by 1.0 min (6.5%) (0.81, 1.19). After adjustment for initial BP, age, hypertension treatment status and change in weight, swimming increased supine and standing systolic BP relative to walking by 4.4 mmHg (1.2, 7.5) (P = 0.008) and 6.0 mmHg (2.6, 9.5) (P = 0.001), respectively. Supine and standing diastolic BP increased by 1.4 mmHg (-0.14, 3.0) (P = 0.07) and 1.8 mmHg (-0.02, 3.5) (P = 0.05), respectively. Relative to moderately paced walking, regular swimming significantly elevates BP in previously sedentary, normotensive, older women. This finding may have important implications for exercise prescription in older subjects.

309 Type of exercise determines short and long-term health benefits of a swim and walk program in older women: the SWEAT 2 study

309 Type of exercise determines short and long-term health benefits of a swim and walk program in older women: the SWEAT 2 study

Testing dynamic relations between perceived competence and fear of failure in young athletes

Conceptually, achievement motives are stable phenomena; however, recent evidence suggests that fear of failure (FF) levels decrease slightly as participants gain experience with an activity. One plausible explanation for this decrease in FF is that practice (and consequential reinforcement and approval from coaches) leads to increased perceptions of competence and concomitant reductions in the perceived likelihood and aversiveness of failing. Boys and girls in a recreational summer swimming program ( N = 165) completed measures of FF and perceived competence (PC) at the beginning, middle, and end of a 6-week swimming season. The FF and PC measures exhibited strong and strict factorial invariance, respectively. As expected, FF scores exhibited a slight but significant decrease over the season whereas PC growth trajectories varied significantly. Neither initial levels of nor subsequent changes in PC significantly predicted the rate at which FF scores changed over six weeks. These findings indicated that changes in PC do not confound evaluations of change in FF during youth sport seasons.

Exercise in Heart Failure: Should Aqua Therapy and Swimming Be Allowed?

Although exercise training is established as an integrated part of treatment regimes in both patients with transmural myocardial infarction (MI) and chronic congestive heart failure (CHF), there is no consensus yet on the appropriateness of water exercises and swimming. One reason is the lack of information concerning both central hemodynamic volume and pressure responses during immersion in these patients. This paper presents explorative studies on changes in cardiac dimensions and central hemodynamics during graded immersion and swimming in patients with moderate and/or severe MI and in patients with moderate and/or compensated severe CHF. For comparison purposes, healthy subjects were assessed. Measurements were performed by using Swan-Ganz right heart catheterization, subxiphoidal echocardiography, and Doppler-echocardiography. The major findings were: 1) Indicators of an increase in preload were seen in patients with moderate and severe MI. In both patient groups, upright immersion to the neck and supine body position at rest in the water resulted in abnormal mean pulmonary artery pressure (PAm) and mean pulmonary capillary pressures (PCPm), respectively. During low-speed swimming (20-25 m.min(-1)), the PAm and/or PCPm were higher than during supine cycle ergometry at a load of 100 W. 2) Left ventricular overload and decrease and/or no change in stroke volume occurred in patients with severe CHF who were immersed up to the neck. 3) Patient's well-being was maintained despite hemodynamic deterioration. The acute responses during immersion and swimming suggest the need for additional studies on long-term changes in cardiac dimensions and central hemodynamic in both patients with severe MI and severe CHF who undergo a swimming program, compared with nonswimming patients with MI and CHF of similar etiology and severity of disease.

أثر برنامج تعليمي مقترح في السباحة على بعض المتغيرات لدى الرجال متوسطي العمر

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of suggested four weeks learning swimming program on the middle age men’s performance, fear degree, and social self-concept. The sample consisted of 24 participants in learning swimming program provided by faculty of physical education at the University of Jordan for local community. The results of data analysis indicated that the suggested swimming program improved the participants’ performance and social self-concept, it also reduced their fear degree. The researchers suggested the implementation of this program, and conducted other studies for other age categories. هدفت هذه الدراسة إلى التعرف إلى أثر برنامج تعليمي مقترح في السباحة على مستوى الأداء المهاري ودرجة الخوف ومفهوم الذات الاجتماعي للرجال متوسطي العمر المشاركين في الدورات التعليمية التي تعقدها كلية التربية الرياضية لأبناء المجتمع المحلي. تم وضع برنامج تعليمي مقترح لمدة أربعة أسابيع وبمعدل ثلاث وحدات تعليمية أسبوعيا وزمن كل وحدة تعليمية (75) دقيقة. اختيرت عينة الدراسة بالطريقة العمدية (القصدية) وبلغ عددهم (24) مشاركاً ممن ليس لديهم أي خبرة سابقة في السباحة. أشارت نتائج التحليل الإحصائي إلى أن تطبيق البرنامج التعليمي المقترح احدث تقدماً لدى أفراد عينة الدراسة في المستوى المهاري وفي مفهوم الذات الاجتماعي وفي الإقلال من المخاوف المرتبطة بتعلم السباحة. ويوصي الباحثان باستخدام هذا البرنامج التعليمي المقترح لتعليم هذه الفئة العمرية في الأردن. وأن يتم إجراء دراسات تهتم بوضع برامج تعليمية قائمة على أسس علمية سليمة تتناسب مع الخصائص النفسية والبدنية والمهارية لباقي الفئات العمرية.

Nitric oxide regulates swimming in the jellyfish Aglantha digitale.

The cnidarian nervous system is considered by many to represent neuronal organization in its earliest and simplest form. Here we demonstrate, for the first time in the Cnidaria, the neuronal localization of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in the hydromedusa Aglantha digitale (Trachylina). Expression of specific, fixative-resistant NADPH-diaphorase (NADPH-d) activity, characteristic of NOS, was observed in neurites running in the outer nerve ring at the base of the animal and in putative sensory cells in the ectoderm covering its tentacles. At both sites, diphenyleneiodonium (10(-4) M) abolished staining. Capillary electrophoresis confirmed that the NO breakdown products NO2- and NO3- were present at high levels in the tentacles, but were not detectable in NADPH-d-negative areas. The NADPH-d-reactive neurons in the tentacles send processes to regions adjacent to the inner nerve ring where swimming pacemaker cells are located. Free-moving animals and semi-intact preparations were used to test whether NO is involved in regulating the swimming program. NO (30-50 nM) and its precursor L-arginine (1 mM) stimulated swimming, and the effect was mimicked by 8-Br-cGMP (50-100 microM). The NO scavenger PTIO (10-100 microM) and a competitive inhibitor of NOS, L-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 200 microM), significantly decreased the swimming frequency in free-moving animals, while its less-active stereoisomer D-nitroarginine methyl ester (D-NAME, 200 microM) had no such effect. 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxaline-1-one (ODQ, 5-20 microM), a selective inhibitor of soluble guanylyl cyclase, suppressed spontaneous swimming and prevented NO-induced activation of the swimming program. We suggest that an NO/cGMP signaling pathway modulates the rhythmic swimming associated with feeding in Aglantha, possibly by means of putative nitrergic sensory neurons in its tentacles.

Writing Résumés

Writing Résumés

東京大学創設期の体育

The purpose of this study was to investigate the systems of physical education practiced in the early period after the establishment of the University of Tokyo. The results may be summarized as follows : 1) In 1877, the School of Medicine at the University of Tokyo planned to install gymnastic apparatuses at Hongo Campus to be shared with the Sangakubu (Three Schools of Law, Science and Literature). 2) In October of 1877 the Ministry of Education asked the Sangakubu and Medical School to give their views about the proposed invitation of a foreign teacher to give gymnastics instruction at some governmental schools. While the Medical School recognized gymnastics as a required subject, the Sanngakubu considered that students would become unduly exhausted if rigid gymnastics practice were a required subject, and that this would disturb their study. 3) The centralization of research and instruction in physical education under the Taiso-denshujyo (Normal School of Gymnastics) was intended to suspend the function of the University in order to develop physical education. 4) At first, only dormitory students went to the Taiso-denshujyo to take gym classes, but later, commuting students also did so. Gym classes for the Medical School at Hongo were started only later. 5) In March 1881, the Ministry of Education asked the University to make gymnastics a required subject, and the University replied that they would prefer it to be elective, and mainly for dormitory students. In December 1883, the Ministry again made the same request, and this time the University was obliged to agree, and military drill was adopted. 6) In 1878, the University instituted an annual summer swimming program in the Sumida River under an instructor. Kenjutsu (traditional fencing) instructors were also employed. It may be concluded that in these measures the University intended to train students in traditional martial arts as well as gymnastics and western sports.

Swim exercise training and adaptations in the antioxidant defense system of myocardium of old rats: relationship to swim intensity and duration

We examined a suitable swim program of different intensities and durations that could evoke changes in the myocardial antioxidant capacity in 22-month-old rats. Male rats ( Rattus norvegicus) were assigned to either a sedentary control (SE-C) group or one of six trainee groups. Animals were swim-exercised for 4 weeks with either 20 min or 40 min/day, and three intensities, low, moderate and high. Low-intensity at 20 min/day elicited maximum swim velocity ( S v ) and endurance capacity ( P<0.05). While serum total cholesterol, triglyceride and low-density lipoprotein (LDL-C) levels were significantly reduced, high-density lipoprotein (HDL-C) showed an increase ( P<0.05) in low-intensity trained rats (20 min/day) over SE-C. Notable reduction in blood lactate was also evident. Exercise training significantly increased superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD), decreased lipid peroxidation products, malondialdehyde and lipofuscin in the left and right ventricles. Increased Mn-SOD with concomitant decrease in lipofuscin in left ventricle was significantly greater than in right ventricle. Moderate- to high-intensity exercise was not effective in either reducing lipid peroxidation products or elevating Mn-SOD activity. These data suggest that swim training at low-intensity of 20 min/day is beneficial as a major protective adaptation against oxidative stress in old myocardium.

Effectiveness and safety of a structured swimming program in previously sedentary women during pregnancy

Effectiveness and safety of a structured swimming program in previously sedentary women during pregnancy

Effectiveness and safety of a structured swimming program in previously sedentary women during pregnancy

Objective: To determine whether undertaking a swimming program in sedentary women during pregnancy would improve maternal fitness without adverse fetal consequences.Methods: Prospectiveobservational investigation of healthy sedentary pregnant women participating in a monitored swimming program.Results: Twenty-three women attended swimming sessions from 16 to 28 weeks of gestationresulting in increasing distances swum and improved aerobic fitness as measured by physical work capacity (PWC170) (p = 0.003). Resting maternal heart rate decreased (p = 0.041)and resting systolic (p = 0.092) and diastolic (p = 0.971) blood pressures remained unchanged over gestation. The mean fetal heart rates decreased with advancing gestational age (p= 0.001), consistent with normal physiology. Non-stress tests and umbilical artery systolic/diastolic ratios were similar before and after swimming sessions, providing evidence that fetal well-being wasunchanged.Conclusions: A structured swimming program in sedentary pregnant women increases maternal fitness without any alteration in maternal and fetal well-being.

수중요법을 통한 ACL 재건술 환자의 근기능에 미치는 영향

The purpose of this study was to identify effects of an aquatic therapy swimming program on patients with anterior cruciate ligament injuries. All of the patients responded to notices containing a description of the study that were posted in the rehabilitation center where the study were conducted. Participants registered for the program in the rehabilitation center, obtained physicians`s permissions to participated, and completed required registration forms. 12 participants were randomly assigned into two groups: an aquatic swimming program(N=6), a physical therapy group(N=6). All of the participants completed the exercises during one hour a day, three days a week for 12 weeks. The following results were found in this study: 1. Changes of flexor and extensor at 60°/sec Although no significant difference was found between two groups, an aquatic swimming group and a physical therapy group with respect to the measures of peak torque, there were significant increases between two groups over training time. While there were progressively increases between two groups with respect to the measures of peak torque on the uninvolved side at 60°/sec, there was not found significant difference between two groups over training time. No significant difference was found in both involved side and uninvolved side by the training period. The training group showed a quick recovery from the muscle functions, followed by a aquatic swimming group, and a physical therapy group. This study also revealed significant differences Training Period X both Involved and Uninvolved sides X Group interaction. 2. Changes of flexor and extensor at 180°/sec Although no significant difference was found between two groups with respect to the measures of peak torque on the flexor of the involved side at 180°/sec. While there were progressively increases between two groups an aquatic groups and a physical therapy group with respect to the measures of peak torque on the uninvolved side at 180°/sec, there were not found significant differences between two groups over training time. As a result of the treatments during the course of this study, there were significant differences Training Period X both Uninvolved and Involved Side interaction for peak torque. This study also revealed significant differences Training Period X both Involved and Uninvolved sides X Group interaction. This study also revealed significant differences Training Period X both Involved and Uninvolved Sides X Group interaction. In summary, as a result of 12 weeks of rehabilitation program, there were differences between two groups muscular functions, while not significantly different from each other. This study showed differences in the muscular functions of both involved and uninvolved sides between two groups by the treatment period. Although aquatic swimming group showed a quick recovery from the muscular functions, followed by physical therapy group, there was no significant difference. These findings suggest that aquatic swimming program is more effective interventions to the patients with anterior cruciate ligament injuries than physical therapy program.

Commercial Swim Programs With Dwarf Minke Whales On The Northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia: Some Characteristics Of The Encounters With Management Implications

Commercial swim programs with the dwarf minke whale Balaenoptera ?acutorostrata occur seasonally (primarily June - July) within the Cairns and Far Northern sections of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) Marine Park. Observations of whale-swimmer interactions over five seasons indicate that initiation and maintenance of contact with vessel and swimmers is largely voluntary and thus the swim programs can comply with the general principle that the whales control the initiation and nature of interactions. Preliminary data on within-season (13 whales in 1999) and between year (four whales from 1999 in 2000, 2001) re-sightings within the study area suggest that any impacts from swim programs may affect a particular subset of the population. The extent of possible cumulative effects can be assessed by continuation of the existing photo and video-ID program. No signs of aggression have been documented but some behaviour (bubble blasts, jaw gape) could be considered as threat display. More detailed analysis of behaviour is necessary to monitor such behaviour. A risk analysis is given for aspects of the interactions, with suggested research to monitor such risks.

Stroke: A Bird’s Eye View

In early September 1991, I was a healthy man, working in my profession as a college instructor and enjoying the opera on vacation in Santa Fe. It was there that a spider bit me. I later learned it was the deadly brown recluse spider. Only immediate medical treatment saved me. I seemed to recover, but 2 weeks later, home in California, I lost my balance because of severe dizziness. I was treated for labyrinthitis and was about to be released when, in front of my family and my doctor right there in the emergency room, I had a stroke. To this day, I believe that the spider bite caused the stroke. The doctors don’t know and won’t say. The first stroke was mild, but 2 days later, a second one hit. This one was major. I almost didn’t make it. My doctor was considering taking me off life support, but I refused. Even though I was unable to speak, I conveyed my determination to live. I remember it as a conscious decision. And live I did. The experience inspired me. It served me well when it came to recovering. I learned it was MY choice. I was hospitalized for 4 months. I had good medical care all that time. What I didn’t have was good information on how to recover. Mostly, the medical personnel believed that after 6 months, nothing new in the way of improvement could happen. I learned then that I had to take charge of my own recovery. I had to do the research myself. The first 6 months I spent in Sacramento, California, where my partner was living and working. My medical carrier authorized occupational, physical, and speech therapy. I made some improvement. I learned how to eat and how to begin using my voice again. But the improvement was slow and painstaking. I wanted more. I started asking about what else there was. I heard about water therapy and found a swimming program. I enrolled. I joined a class for stroke survivors where we did range-of-motion exer-

A swimming program for children with asthma

A swimming program for children with asthma

AGING AND THE ETIOPATHOGENESIS AND TREATMENT OF OSTEOARTHRITIS

Knee OA in the older adult is often the result of multiple factors, some of which are intrinsic to the joint tissues and related to aging and others, such as obesity, which are extrinsic and influence the rate of development and severity of the disease. Obesity and quadricep weakness are factors that may be modifiable. The focus in managing patients with knee OA should not only be centered on the improvement of pain but also improvement in function. A combination of simple analgesics and nonpharmacologic measures, including exercises to strengthen the knee extensors, should be employed. Patients also can benefit from aerobic exercises, such as a walking or swimming program and strategies for joint protection. When medications are needed, the least toxic drugs possible should be used given the increased susceptibility of older adults to unwanted side effects.

Swimming eliminates the weight gain and abdominal fat associated with ovariectomy in the retired breeder rat despite high-fat diet selection

The effects of swim-training on choice of dietary fat, carbohydrate or protein, weight gain, energy intake, and energy efficiency were examined in ovariectomized and sham-operated retired breeder rats. After a 3 week training period of increased duration, rats swam for 75min per session (5 days per week) for 4 weeks. Ovariectomized rats gained more weight than sham rats, while swimming reduced weight gain and abdominal fat. As a percentage of total intake, macronutrient choices (weight and energy) were similar for all groups, ovariectomized animals consumed more food and more energy, compared with sham animals. All rats freely chose the majority of their food (g) as carbohydrate and the majority of energy (kJ) as fat. Results indicate that a moderate intensity training program of swimming prevented the weight gain following ovariectomy in older rats despite their excessive caloric intake of fat.

An intervention in the Halliwick Method procedures (swimming) for a group of individuals with Downs syndrome

The purpose of this study was to intervene in the process of the Halliwick Method (swimming), in order to improve the method, or some of its aspects, for a sample of 14 individuals with Downs syndrome (aged six to 21 years), using both an individualized educational setting approach and a differentiation of the elements of the Halliwick Method. The pre-intervention phase included medical examination, IQ, measurement of the behaviour according to the Rutter Scale and a Test of Physical Performance for each subject. Next, the subjects were assigned to seven pairs of case studies, where each individual following a Halliwick Methods swimming programme was paired with an individual following a modified swimming programme based on the same method, on physical health variables, IQ, behaviour and motor abilities. The duration of each swimming programme was 24 weeks for each individual, at a frequency of once per week, for 40 minutes. In the light of the findings of this study, further recommendations for the improvement of Halliwick Method procedures were made, common factors that affected the performance of each individual were identified and their relation with performance was explored.

Swim training improves myocardial resistance to ischemia in rats.

As the relationship between training and ischemic heart disease is not yet unraveled, we test the hypothesis that, in a model free from environmental, behavioural, and neuro-hormonal factors, endurance training improves myocardial resistance to ischemia. As carbohydrate metabolism is relevant for myocardial resistance to ischemia, we also test whether hyperglycemia blunts the protective effect of training. Eight-week old rats were randomly assigned to four groups (n = 6-8): sedentary or trained (3-week swim program, up to 2 h/day), and normal or high-carbohydrate diet (50 g/l sucrose in drinking water). Excised hearts were perfused isovolumically (flow = 15 ml/min) with Krebs-Henseleit (2 mM free Ca++, 11 mM glucose, pH 7.38 +/- 0.02, PO2 = 670 +/- 6 mmHg, PCO2 = 43 +/- 1 mmHg, mean +/- SE), exposed to 60 min low-flow (1.5 ml/min) ischemia, and then reperfused for 30 min (15 ml/min). In normally fed rats training increased the stroke volume index (97.5 +/- 13.0 vs. 72.6 +/- 6.2 microl, P = 0.05), depressed diastolic contracture (+2.3 +/- 2.0 vs. +24.2 +/- 6.7 mmHg, P = 0.02), improved the recovery of developed pressure x heart rate (33.8 +/- 2.3 vs. 24.1 +/- 3.3 mmHg/min/1000, P = 0.05), and decreased arrhythmias (P = 0.05). In high-carbohydrate-fed rats training induced myocardial hypertrophy (1.95 +/- 0.08 vs. 1.67 +/- 0.03 g, P = 0.02) and decreased arrhythmias but did not affect stroke volume, developed pressure x heart rate, and diastolic contracture. Thus endurance training improves myocardial resistance to ischemia but a high-carbohydrate diet partially blunts this protection. The occurrence of an inducible alteration able to modulate myocardial tolerance to ischemia may give clues to extend our knowledge of ischemic preconditioning.