Profile Pictures Research Articles

Look the Part? The Role of Profile Pictures in Online Labor Markets

Freelancing platforms have gained tremendous popularity, connecting millions of employers and freelancers worldwide. We examine whether profile pictures on such platforms may facilitate hiring biases based on appearance-based perceptions of a freelancer's fit for the job (e.g., whether the applicant looks like a programmer). We collect data from Freelancer.com for all jobs posted between January-June 2018 that ended in a contract, resulting in 79,038 jobs with 2,462,043 applications from 220,385 freelancers. Leveraging computer vision techniques, we find that freelancers with pictures perceived as high fit (or who ''look the part'') are more likely to be hired. More importantly, we show that such a bias goes above and beyond known prejudice variables such as demographics and attractiveness. Interestingly, we discover that ''looking the part'' complements rather than substitutes online reputation. We further conduct two experiments to explore the underlying mechanisms behind these findings. We find that when the reputation system is extremely positive, as in most freelancing platforms, employers use profile pictures as tiebreakers to choose among similar applicants. We also show that freelancers, especially those who ''do not look the part,'' may mitigate such biases by strategically selecting backgrounds and accessories in their profile pictures to enhance their chances of being hired.

The profile and clinical picture of children with undernutrition admitted to National District Hospital.

Introductionundernutrition has a profound effect on growth, development and susceptibility to infectious disease. In Africa, it was found that undernutrition is an underlying factor in around 35% of the preventable deaths of children under the age of 5 years. The first 1000 days of life is most crucial for childhood development. Undernourished children in their first 1000 days of development experience a significant reduction in brain development which cannot be regained later in life. The aim was to describe the profile and clinical picture of admitted children with undernutrition, in order to identify areas for intervention.Methodsa descriptive study design with an analytical component was used. Data for undernourished admitted children, ages 2-71 months, for the study period 2016-2017 at the study site were included in the study. Data were collected from patient files and summarised by frequencies and percentages.Resultsdata were collected from 172 patient files, which is > 80% of all children eligible for inclusion. Most (88.0%) of the children had a weight for age < -2 SD and 18.6% had bilateral pitting oedema. More than 80% of the children were still in their first 1000 days of life, 42.8% were born with low birth weight and 24.2% were not breastfed. Head circumference was only recorded for 16.3%. Presenting symptoms were cough, fever and diarrhea - in line with those covered in the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI).Conclusionmost children presented within the first 1000 days of life, making focussed interventions possible. Areas identified for intervention were babies with low birth weight and babies not breastfed. As most children presented with IMCI symptoms, nurses should also assess the nutritional status of these children in accordance with the guidelines. Lack of anthropometric measurements and poorly recorded feeding histories should be addressed.

Evaluation of serum lipid profile and complete hemogram in patients with oral submucous fibrosis: A case control study

Aim: Not many studies in the literature are found that include all the variables under complete blood picture along with lipid profile. The aim of study was to evaluate the serum lipid profile and complete blood picture in patients with oral submucous fibrosis (OSMF). Materials and Methods: It is a case control study with the sample size of 40 patients considered by random sampling, which includes 20 clinically diagnosed patients with OSMF as per the diagnostic criteria of Passi et al. and 20 sex-matched controls. Five milliliters of blood was collected from the most prominent vein of right cubital fossa and stored in test tubes. Centrifugation was carried out for about 4–5min at 2500rpm and the serum collected was stored at 4°C and subjected to auto analyzer for analyzing complete lipid profile and complete blood picture. Mann–Whitney U test was used to compare mean age, mean values of lipid profile parameters, and hematological parameters between OSMF and healthy group. Results: The serum lipid levels were significantly lower in patients with OSMF than in controls, and also patients with OSMF showed significantly lower levels of hemoglobin (Hb), red blood cells (RBCs), and platelets and increased levels of erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and white blood cell (WBC) than in controls. Conclusion: This study concluded that the lower serum lipid levels may serve as a diagnostic and prognostic indicator in the early diagnosis of oral premalignant lesions, and the findings in our study emphasize on the assessment of Hb, RBCs, WBCs, platelets, and ESR for patients with OSMF. So it is recommended to subject the patients with oral precancerous conditions to biochemical investigations as it may aid in early diagnosis and prognosis.

Fluorescence imaging analysis of depth‐dependent degradation in photovoltaic laminates: insights to the failure

AbstractAccurate evaluation of the reliability of photovoltaic (PV) packaging materials is critically important for the long‐term safe operation of modules. However, the complexity of the laminated systems due to their multilayered and multicomponent structures and diverse aging mechanisms makes a thorough system evaluation very challenging, especially when the degradation is non‐uniform through the thickness. In such a case, neither surface nor bulk measurements can present a clear picture of the degradation profile. In this study, fluorescence imaging was developed to visualize the degradation depth‐profiles of an aged laminated PV system. A glass/ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) encapsulant/poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)‐PET‐EVA (PPE) backsheet laminate was weathered with the glass‐side facing an ultraviolet (UV) light source for 3840 h. Cross‐sectional fluorescence images revealed a non‐uniform distribution of degradation species across the thickness of the EVA encapsulant, providing greater insight into the mechanisms of degradation, which are unavailable by traditional bulk‐based methods. In addition, strong fluorescence emissions were observed from the two thin adhesive layers of the aged backsheet, indicating severe degradation of the adhesives and a potential for interlayer delamination. This method is further confirmed with other microscale characterization techniques. The changes in optical (yellowness index), chemical (oxidation, UV absorber concentration), mechanical (Derjaguin‐Muller‐Toporov modulus), and thermal (melting enthalpy) properties of the EVA encapsulant were found to be related to fluorescence profiles, following the attenuation of UV light. This study highlights that fluorescence imaging is a spatially‐resolved and sensitive method for rapid failure assessment and in‐depth mechanism study for complex PV‐laminated system.

Identifying Ear Abnormality from 2D Photographs Using Convolutional Neural Networks

Quantifying ear deformity using linear measurements and mathematical modeling is difficult due to the ear’s complex shape. Machine learning techniques, such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs), are well-suited for this role. CNNs are deep learning methods capable of finding complex patterns from medical images, automatically building solution models capable of machine diagnosis. In this study, we applied CNN to automatically identify ear deformity from 2D photographs. Institutional review board (IRB) approval was obtained for this retrospective study to train and test the CNNs. Photographs of patients with and without ear deformity were obtained as standard of care in our photography studio. Profile photographs were obtained for one or both ears. A total of 671 profile pictures were used in this study including: 457 photographs of patients with ear deformity and 214 photographs of patients with normal ears. Photographs were cropped to the ear boundary and randomly divided into training (60%), validation (20%), and testing (20%) datasets. We modified the softmax classifier in the last layer in GoogLeNet, a deep CNN, to generate an ear deformity detection model in Matlab. All images were deemed of high quality and usable for training and testing. It took about 2 hours to train the system and the training accuracy reached almost 100%. The test accuracy was about 94.1%. We demonstrate that deep learning has a great potential in identifying ear deformity. These machine learning techniques hold the promise in being used in the future to evaluate treatment outcomes.

Assessment of Oligo-Chitosan Biocompatibility toward Human Spermatozoa.

The many interesting properties of chitosan polysaccharides have prompted their extensive use as biomaterial building blocks, for instance as antimicrobial coatings, tissue engineering scaffolds, and drug delivery vehicles. The translation of these chitosan-based systems to the clinic still requires a deeper understanding of their safety profiles. For instance, the widespread claim that chitosans are spermicidal is supported by little to no data. Herein, we thoroughly investigate whether chitosan oligomer (CO) molecules can impact the functional and structural features of human spermatozoa. By using a large number of primary sperm cell samples and by isolating the effect of chitosan from the effect of sperm dissolution buffer, we provide the first realistic and complete picture of the effect of chitosans on sperms. We found that CO binds to cell surfaces or/and is internalized by cells and affected the average path velocity of the spermatozoa, in a dose-dependent manner. However, CO did not affect the progressive motility, motility, or sperm morphology, nor did it cause loss of plasma membrane integrity, reactive oxygen species production, or DNA damage. A decrease in spermatozoa adenosine triphosphate levels, which was especially significant at higher CO concentrations, points to possible interference of CO with mitochondrial functions or the glycolysis processes. With this first complete and in-depth look at the spermicidal activities of chitosans, we complement the complex picture of the safety profile of chitosans and inform on further use of chitosans in biomedical applications.

Analisis budaya dan hambatan organisasi pada Bank “X” di Bandung

Culture and blockage is one of the important elements in company life, because it can make a significant contribution to the success or failure of an organization. The model used to assess the organizational culture is the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) by Cameron &amp; Quinn. This model has four cultural types (clan, adhocracy, market, and hierarchy) and of the four cultural has 6 dimensions (dominant characteristic, organizational leadership, management of employee, organizational glue, strategic emphases, and criteria for success. Organizational blockage style is using Unblocking Organizational Questionnaire (UOQ) by Francis &amp; Woodcock. This model has 14 blockages in organization (unclear aims, unclear values, inappropriate management philosophy, lack of management development, confused organizational structure, inadequate control, inadequate recruitment and selection, unfair rewards, poor training, lack of personal development, inadequate communication, poor teamwork, low motivation, and low creativity). In collecting the data, the sample used is 28 people by distributing questionnaires. The results of this study it was found that Bank “X” adopted adhocracy cultural. However, for the next five years they are expected to have a combination of different cultures namely market and clan culture. Market cultural dimensions will be the main focus in the next five years to improve target achievement. This cultural profile picture can be use as input for corporate to policy making to create organizational culture that compatible with the corporate’s vision dan mission. And for the result of blockage organization in the utilization of Human Resources in Bank "X" are poor trainning, unfair rewards and low creativity.

Insights into the Bacterial Profiles and Resistome Structures Following the Severe 2018 Flood in Kerala, South India.

Extreme flooding is one of the major risk factors for human health, and it can significantly influence the microbial communities and enhance the mobility of infectious disease agents within the affected areas. The flood crisis in 2018 was one of the severe natural calamities recorded in the southern state of India (Kerala) that significantly affected its economy and ecological habitat. We utilized a combination of shotgun metagenomics and bioinformatics approaches to understand the bacterial profile and the abundance of pathogenic and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in extremely flooded areas of Kuttanad, Kerala (4–10 feet below sea level). Here we report the bacterial profiles of flooded sites that are abundant with virulent and resistant bacteria. The flooded sites were heavily contaminated with faecal contamination indicators such as Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis and multidrug-resistant strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi/typhimurium, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Vibrio cholerae. The resistome of the flooded sites contains 103 known resistant genes, of which 38% are plasmid-encoded, where most of them are known to be associated with pathogenic bacteria. Our results reveal an overall picture of the bacterial profile and resistome of sites following a devastating flood event, which might increase the levels of pathogens and its associated risks.

Determining of cytokine levels in the urine in clinical practice.

The paper presents data on the study of the content of cytokines (IL-1β, RAIL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, IL-17A, TNF-, IFN-γ) in the morning urine using enzyme immunoassay in healthy individuals (n = 20) and in patients with acute glomerulonephritis (n = 93). The determination of cytokine levels in patients was carried out in the debut of the disease and 12 months after the onset of the disease. The obtained indicators of cytokine content in the urine are presented as absolute values in pg/ml and creatinine-normalized values calculated by the formula: cytokine level (pg/ml) / urine creatinine (µmol/ml). The study was made of changes in the content of cytokines in the urine of patients with glomerulonephritis with respect to a group of healthy individuals, as well as the dynamics of the content of cytokines in the urine during the 12-month observation period. The results of the study showed that the absolute values of cytokines in urine can distort the true picture of the cytokine profile of urine in renal pathology. Normalized values of the predominant number of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-8, IL-10, IL-17A and TNF-α) in patients with glomerulonephritis were significantly higher than the corresponding indicators of healthy individuals. The normalized values of cytokines were shown to be as more sensitive indicators than absolute values in the course of analyzing differences in the cytokine profile in patients with glomerulonephritis, depending on chronic and acute course of the disease. These indicators influenced the outcome of glomerulonephritis, assessed, as a rule, 12 months after the onset of the disease. Thus, the low levels of IL-1β, IL-8 and IL-17А detected in the debut of the disease in combination with the high level of RAIL-1β determined the chronization of glomerulonephritis. So, the creatinine-normalized cytokine levels in the urine expand the possibilities of using the evaluation of the cytokine profile of urine to establish changes in the cytokine content in the urine in renal pathology and predict the chronization of glomerulonephritis.

Torus Constraints in ANEPD-CXO245: A Compton-thick AGN with Double-peaked Narrow Lines

Abstract We report on the torus constraints of the Compton-thick active galactic nucleus (AGN) with double-peaked optical narrow-line region emission lines, ANEPD-CXO245, at z = 0.449 in the AKARI NEP Deep Field. The unique infrared data on this field, including those from the nine-band photometry over 2–24 μm with the AKARI Infrared Camera, and the X-ray spectrum from Chandra allow us to constrain torus parameters such as the torus optical depth, X-ray absorbing column, torus angular width (σ), and viewing angle (i). We analyze the X-ray spectrum as well as the UV–optical–infrared spectral energy distribution (UOI-SED) with clumpy torus models in X-ray (XCLUMPY) and infrared (CLUMPY), respectively. From our current data, the constraints on σ–i from both X-rays and UOI show that the line of sight crosses the torus as expected for a type 2 AGN. We obtain a small X-ray scattering fraction (&lt;0.1%), which suggests narrow torus openings, giving preference to the bipolar outflow picture of the double-peaked profile. Comparing the optical depth of the torus from the UOI-SED and the absorbing column density N H from the X-ray spectrum, we find that the gas-to-dust ratio is ≳4 times larger than the Galactic value.

Impression formation on online dating sites: Effects of language errors in profile texts on perceptions of profile owners’ attractiveness

This article presents two experimental studies investigating the impact of language errors in online dating profiles on impression formation. A first study examined whether language errors have a negative effect on perceptions of attraction and dating intention and whether this effect is moderated by the presence of visual information, that is, the profile picture. This 2 (Language Errors/No Language Errors) × 2 (Visible/Blurred Picture) experiment revealed that language errors negatively affect perceptions of social and romantic attraction and that a visible picture on a profile positively affects perceptions of physical attraction. Study 2 focused on mechanical, rule-based, and informal language errors, which can each be attributed to different personality traits. Mechanical and rule-based errors lead to lower scores on, respectively, perceived attentiveness and intelligence, which in turn lead to lower attraction and dating intention scores. These results highlight the importance of error-free language use as a cue for attractiveness.

Differential developmental refinement of the intrinsic electrophysiological properties of CA1 pyramidal neurons from the rat dorsal and ventral hippocampus.

The dorsal and ventral regions of the rat longitudinal hippocampal axis are functionally distinct. That is, each region is associated with different behavioral tasks and disease susceptibilities due to underlying anatomical, and physiological differences. These differences are especially pronounced in area CA1, where significant differences in morphology, synaptic physiology, intrinsic excitability, and gene expression have been reported between CA1 pyramidal neurons from the dorsal (DHC) and ventral hippocampus (VHC). However, despite a significant amount of recent attention, a cogent picture of the intrinsic electrophysiological profile of DHC and VHC neurons has remained elusive, due, in part, to experiments performed on rats at different developmental time points. Moreover, the resulting intrinsic electrophysiological profiles are sufficiently different as to warrant a thorough investigation of the spatial and temporal changes in the intrinsic excitability of CA1 pyramidal neurons across developmental time. Accordingly, in this study, I have characterized the intrinsic electrophysiological properties of CA1 pyramidal neurons from acute hippocampal slices prepared from the DHC and VHC throughout an approximately 3-week developmental period (P14-P37). DHC and VHC neurons exhibited distinct intra-region changes (DHC or VHC) and inter-region differences (DHC versus VHC) in their intrinsic electrophysiological properties, which yielded two developmental timelines: (a) a common developmental timeline describing changes observed in both DHC and VHC neurons, and (b) a differential developmental timeline highlighting unique features observed in DHC neurons. Specifically, DHC neurons exhibited significant inter-region differences in RMP, input resistance, threshold, and spike frequency adaptation relative to VHC neurons, as well as an intra-region change in the rebound slope (a proxy for Ih ). These observations both integrate and reconcile previous work performed with rats at different developmental stages and suggest a distinct developmental trajectory for DHC neurons that might shed light on the normal physiological functions and disease susceptibility of the DHC.

Perceiving education from Facebook profile pictures

Our upbringing and education influence not only how we present and distinguish ourselves in the social world but also how we perceive others. We apply this central sociological idea to the social media context. We conduct a large-scale online study to investigate whether observers can correctly guess the education of others from their Facebook profile pictures. Using the binomial test and cross-classified mixed-effects models, we show that observers can assess the education of depicted persons better than chance, especially when they share the same educational background and have experience with the social media. We also find that posting pictures of outdoor activities is a strong signal of having higher education, while professional photographs can obscure education signals. The findings expand our knowledge of social interaction and self-expression online and offer new insights for understanding social influence on social media.

The impact of host race and gender on prices on Airbnb

This study investigates the impact of host race and gender on Airbnb property prices. I use an existing dataset of Airbnb listings and visually inspect 70,000 host profile pictures to code host demographics. I estimate that Asian hosts earn 4–5%, and Black male hosts 3%, less than White males for the same type of property. However, controlling for more observables weakens the effects, requiring a cautious interpretation of these point estimates. I use two proxies for the number of bookings a listing has to estimate whether a demand or supply shift is responsible for the price disparity. I find that despite the lower prices they charge for listings, minority hosts face lower demand. These findings are consistent with, but not conclusive of, the presence of discrimination.

Grinding against Genocide: Rhetorics of Shame, Sex, and Memory at the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe

The 2011 phenomenon “Grindr Remembers the Holocaust” represents one of the most controversial artifacts at the intersection of sex, shame, and Holocaust memory. Featuring men who have sex with men posing for Grindr profile pictures at Berlin’s Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe, this trend was widely condemned as “shameful” across global media. This essay argues, on the contrary, that such images can be read as productive rhetorical acts, particularly as a controversy that instigated discourses to remember and recover long-forgotten homosexual victims of the Holocaust. In particular, I show how these “shameful” images and their framing by others both affirm past homosexual victims and redirect shame toward contemporary critics ignorant of anti-homosexual atrocities under the Nazi regime.

What Twitter Profile and Posted Images Reveal about Depression and Anxiety

Previous work has found strong links between the choice of social media images and users’ emotions, demographics and personality traits. In this study, we examine which attributes of profile and posted images are associated with depression and anxiety of Twitter users. We used a sample of 28,749 Facebook users to build a language prediction model of survey-reported depression and anxiety, and validated it on Twitter on a sample of 887 users who had taken anxiety and depression surveys. We then applied it to a different set of 4,132 Twitter users to impute language-based depression and anxiety labels, and extracted interpretable features of posted and profile pictures to uncover the associations with users’ depression and anxiety, controlling for demographics. For depression, we find that profile pictures suppress positive emotions rather than display more negative emotions, likely because of social media self-presentation biases. They also tend to show the single face of the user (rather than show her in groups of friends), marking increased focus on the self, emblematic for depression. Posted images are dominated by grayscale and low aesthetic cohesion across a variety of image features. Profile images of anxious users are similarly marked by grayscale and low aesthetic cohesion, but less so than those of depressed users. Finally, we show that image features can be used to predict depression and anxiety, and that multitask learning that includes a joint modeling of demographics improves prediction performance. Overall, we find that the image attributes that mark depression and anxiety offer a rich lens into these conditions largely congruent with the psychological literature, and that images on Twitter allow inferences about the mental health status of users.

A Discourse Interpretation of Digitally Mediated Texts as Transformation Tools among Selected Whatsapp Users

The twenty-first century has witnessed social media discourse becoming part and parcel of our daily communication. Social media can therefore be described as a vibrant linguistic platform where various classes of people converge daily to communicate with one another on all issues bothering themselves personally and the macro societies in which they live. Apart from borderless chatting opportunities, WhatsApp users have the chance of posting their pictures in a photo-profile corner for their easy identity advertisement. In recent times, rather than posting personal pictures in their photo-profile corner, an inscription is displayed to create a relatively permanent message or impression, either confirming a principle or belief of the user or admonishing the individual’s contacts. The concern of this paper is to examine the relevance of selected texts displayed as profile pictures on WhatsApp in the quest for transformation of Africa as a society. Using critical theory framework, our paper shows that WhatsApp users deliberately make use of certain texts on their profile spaces to convey their ideologies. The paper concludes that WhatsApp is indeed a channel for free expression, and an opportunity for the spread of principles and ideologies which are capable of developing individuals as well as our society.

Impressions of HIV risk online: Brain potentials while viewing online dating profiles.

There is an increasing trend to use online dating to meet potential partners. Previous studies in off-line contexts indicate that people may judge the risk of sexually transmitted infections based on a person's appearance. Online dating profiles commonly present profile pictures and verbal self-descriptions. To examine the integration of verbal and visual risk information, the current event-related potential (ERP) study used a simulated dating platform in which verbal-descriptive information (low vs. high verbal risk) was presented, followed by a photograph (low vs. high visual risk). Results indicated main effects of verbal and visual risk. Specifically, high-risk compared with low-risk verbal profiles elicited a relative negative shift over occipitoparietal sensor sites between 260 ms and 408 ms. Furthermore, a sustained occipital negativity (132-500 ms) and central positivity (156-272 ms) was observed for high as compared with low visual risk profiles. There was also evidence for the integration of verbal and visual risk formation, as indicated by distinct positive ERP shift occurred between 272 ms and 428 ms over anterior temporal regions when a high-risk photograph was preceded by high-risk verbal information. This suggests that verbal-descriptive information is integrated with visual appearance early in the processing stream. The distinct response for high verbal and visual information extends the notion of an alarm function ascribed to risk perception by demonstrating integration about multiple sources. Simulating online dating platforms provides a useful tool to examine intuitive risk perception.

How accessible are you? A hospital-wide audit of the accessibility and professionalism of Facebook profiles.

Introduction Social media is an integral part of modern society and is increasingly being used by patients and clinical staff alike. The General Dental Council and most employers have social media guidelines to ensure employees use social media responsibly and do not bring their organisations into disrepute.Aims To establish the accessibility of Facebook profiles of the staff and students at Eastman Dental Hospital (EDH) and to assess compliance with the latest social media guidance from the General Dental Council as well as the employing trust and university.Design and setting A hospital-wide prospective audit conducted from January to March 2018 at Eastman Dental Hospital.Gold standard One-hundred percent compliance with: a) General Dental Council (GDC); b) University College London (UCL); and c) University College London Hospitals (UCLH) social media policies.Materials and methods The names of all clinical staff/students at EDH were searched for on Facebook using a dummy profile account, to simulate a member of the public. The profiles were assessed for the accessibility of personal information, affiliations to UCL/UCLH, personal views, social networking and conduct.Results A total of 219 out of 440 profiles (50%) were identified and were accessible to varying degrees. Many accessible profiles had a profile picture and personal information visible such as gender and location. No violations of patient confidentiality were seen. Overall, 6% (n = 14) and 2% (n = 4) of profiles displayed unprofessional behaviour and substance abuse, respectively.Discussion This audit highlighted Eastman Dental Hospital's compliance to local and national social media policies.Conclusion It was not possible to identify all staff/students through the Facebook search function. No serious professional misconduct was identified, however a small minority displayed unprofessional behaviour.

The intertwined cyberbalkanizations of Facebook pages and their audience: an analysis of Facebook pages and their audience during the 2014 Hong Kong Occupy Movement

This study tests a hypothesis that information sources (e.g., Facebook pages) that share information more frequently with each other have high level of audience overlapping. This association is also hypothesized to be politically motivated. To test the empirical relationship, a Facebook pages sharing network was created using the information shared between 1453 Facebook pages during a social movement in Hong Kong. The sharing frequency between two pages was denoted as the page-level edge weight. The audience of Facebook pages—commenters and likers of the page’s posts—were collected. The Jaccard similarity coefficient between two pages was measured as the audience-level edge weight. Using network regression analysis, the page-level and audience-level edge weights were significantly associated. To show this relationship is politically motivated, 1076 audience members were randomly selected and with their political preferences labeled by inferring from their Facebook profile pictures. Using machine learning models, the repertoires of Facebook pages that they have interacted with can predict their political preferences. Our study demonstrated that selective sharing between information source is associated with the division of their audiences into enclaved subgroups with similar political ideologies.