Professional Cyclist Research Articles

Making Visible the Invisible Act of Doping

This paper describes the construction of the visual space of surveillance by the global anti-doping apparatus, it is a space inhabited daily by professional cyclists. Two principal mechanisms of this apparatus will be discussed — the Whereabouts System and the Biological Passport; in order to illustrate how this space is constructed and how it visualises the invisible act of doping. These mechanisms act to supervise and govern the professional cyclist and work to classify them as either clean or dirty in terms of the use of prohibited doping substances or methods. Contrary to the analysis of liberal anti-doping scholars such as Hanstad, Loland and Moller this paper argues that Foucault’s Panopticon paradigm is a useful tool for the analysis of this apparatus. The Whereabouts System and Biological Passport are the instruments by which the anti-doping apparatus intensifies the construction of the space of surveillance in professional sport. This space of surveillance not only locates and makes visible the physical location of each individual cyclist, but it also makes visible their internal bodily functions, in this case the composition and the fluctuations of the composition of their blood. In making the cyclist visible the instruments do not allow the cause of doping, or the event of doping to be known or observed. Rather what they do is cast the body in terms of abnormalities of time, place or blood. In the case of an abnormality of the cyclist’s blood, the cause itself cannot be identified with any certainty, all that is made visible is a suggestion, or a probability, that doping may have occurred. The ultimate effects are twofold — an internalisation and continual monitoring of one’s self as well as by the authorities, and a radical change in the nature and the definition of the offence of doping. No longer is it positive evidence of doping that is punishable, but what becomes punishable is an abnormality, in the cyclist’s location, or their body, which suggests a probability that the invisible act of doping may have occurred. In the course of this process accepted manners of proving an offence by the use of scientific evidence and expert commentary are transformed. The Whereabouts System and the Biological Passport open up a new manner in which the invisible can be visualised. Through the discourse and the attendant commentary of the expert a new alliance between doping and the law is constructed. The result is a redistribution of the way in which the law visualises and treats the symptoms (the signifier) and the signified act of doping. The Whereabouts System and Biological Passport are the instruments by which the anti-doping apparatus intensifies the construction of the space of surveillance in professional sport. This space of surveillance not only locates and makes visible the physical location of each individual cyclist, but it also makes visible their internal bodily functions, in this case the composition and the fluctuations of the composition of their blood. In making the cyclist visible the instruments do not allow the cause of doping, or the event of doping to be known or observed. Rather what they do is cast the body in terms of abnormalities of time, place or blood. In the case of an abnormality of the cyclists’s blood, the cause itself cannot be identified with any certainty, all that is made visible is a suggestion, or a probability, that doping may have occurred. The ultimate effects are twofold — an internalisation and continual monitoring of one’s self as well as by the authorities, and a radical change in the nature and the definition of the offence of doping. No longer is it positive evidence of doping that is punishable, but what becomes punishable is an abnormality, in the cyclist’s location, or their body, which suggests a probability that the invisible act of doping may have occurred. In the course of this process accepted manners of proving an offence by the use of scientific evidence and expert commentary are transformed. The Whereabouts System and the Biological Passport open up a new manner in which the invisible can be visualised. Through the discourse and the attendant commentary of the expert a new alliance between doping and the law is constructed. The result is a redistribution of the way in which the law visualises and treats the symptoms (the signifier) and the signified act of doping.

Myasthenia gravis in a professional cyclist—A case report

Since myasthenia gravis affects the muscular system, athletes suffering from the disease often have difficulty in performing or returning to their sports activity, in which exertion of continuous muscular power is required. In this paper, we present a case of a professional bicycle rider with symptomatic MG who successfully return to his sport activity after thymectomy, steroid pulse therapy and aggressive rehabilitation. He resumed load training, returned to competitive cycling 8 months after leaving hospital while being on 20 mg PSL/day, and won seven victories in the top class cycling competitions. This is the first report on a professional athlete suffering from MG who successfully returned to competitive sports after aggressive steroid treatment.

Performance Analysis of a World-Class Sprinter During Cycling Grand Tours

This investigation describes the sprint performances of the highest internationally ranked professional male road sprint cyclist during the 2008-2011 Grand Tours. Sprint stages were classified as won, lost, or dropped from the front bunch before the sprint. Thirty-one stages were video-analyzed for average speed of the last km, sprint duration, position in the bunch, and number of teammates at 60, 30, and 15 s remaining. Race distance, total elevation gain (TEG), and average speed of 45 stages were determined. Head-to-head performances against the 2nd-5th most successful professional sprint cyclists were also reviewed. In the 52 Grand Tour sprint stages the subject started, he won 30 (58%), lost 15 (29%), was dropped in 6 (12%), and had 1 crash. Position in the bunch was closer to the front and the number of team members was significantly higher in won than in lost at 60, 30, and 15 s remaining (P < .05). The sprint duration was not different between won and lost (11.3 ± 1.7 and 10.4 ± 3.2 s). TEG was significantly higher in dropped (1089 ± 465 m) than in won and lost (574 ± 394 and 601 ± 423 m, P < .05). The ability to finish the race with the front bunch was lower (77%) than that of other successful sprinters (89%). However, the subject was highly successful, winning over 60% of contested stages, while his competitors won less than 15%. This investigation explores methodology that can be used to describe important aspects of road sprint cycling and supports the concept that tactical aspects of sprinting can relate to performance outcomes.

Rehabilitation protocol of „runner’s knee” (Iliotibial Band Syndrome - ITBS) – a case study

AbstractIntroduction:„Runner’s knee”, in other words Iliotibial Band Syndrome (ITBS) is the second, after PFPS, in terms of incidence frequency overuse injury amongst runners - 8.5 %. It is the most common cause of lateral knee pain. It mainly occurs in middle aged athletes, in the second decade of life. Cyclists, skiers, weight lifters, soccer and tennis players are next groups, where this clinical entity occurs. ITBS is typical overuse injury which results from cyclic friction (or compression) of iliotibial band on lateral epicondyle of femur. Training errors are main risk factors. Biomechanical disorders leading to this entity are: weakness of gluteus medius, lack of functional hip mobility, weakness of knee flexors and extensors, shortness of hip adductors, limited hip internal rotation. Improper saddle height, frame size or incorrect pedal position can cause ITBS among cyclists.Case study:Professional cyclist was referred to Rehabilitation Centre, complaining about severe pain located at lateral side of the right knee, lasting from 4 months. The pain was described as burning, sharp, increasing during biking, finally disabling him to continue sports activity. After biomechanical analysis we introduced functional re-education training correcting disbalances, the causes of injury. The role of tri-planar, eccentric exercises rotating the pelvis is underlined. After 7 weeks of aggressive, functional rehabilitation resumed sports activity without pain and functional limitations.Conclusions:An early diagnosis of ITBS allows for shorter rehabilitation time. It’s necessary to precisely determine biomechanical disorders leading to ITBS. 7-week rehabilitation, with functional, three dimensional exercises is effective mean of ITBS treatment. We recommend to continue this kind of exercises for 6-12 months to prevent injury recurrence

Does limited gear ratio driven higher training cadence in junior cycling reflect in maximum effort sprint?

Rannama I, Port K, Bazanov B. Does limited gear ratio driven higher training cadence in junior cycling reflect in maximum effort sprint?. J. Hum. Sport Exerc. Vol. 7, No. Proc1, pp. S85-S90, 2012. Maximum gears for youth category riders are limited. As a result, youth category riders are regularly compelled to ride in a high cadence regime. The aim of this study was to investigate if regular work at high cadence regime due to limited transmission in youth category riders reflects in effectual cadence at the point of maximal power generation during the 10 second sprint effort. 24 junior and youth national team cyclist’s average maximal peak power at various cadence regimes was registered on Cyclus-2 ergometer using cyclists own bikes. Effectual cadence at the point of maximal power generation (group average 113.9±10.6 rpm) is similar to the values of professional road cyclist during the last 200m sprinting to finish where 10 second average cadence is 109.9±5.3 rpm and highest average cadence is 117.6±6.1 rpm. The premise that regular work at high cadence regime due to limited transmission in youth category riders reflects in effectual cadence at the point of maximal power generation during the 10 second sprint effort was not corroborated. Key words: CYCLUS-2 ERGOMETER, MAXIMAL POWER, ISOKINETIC, YOUTH CATEGORY.

The Puerto Affair: Revealing the Difficulties of the Fight Against Doping

In 2006, an investigation by the Spanish Guardia Civil led to the identification of a huge network practicing blood doping. Difficulties in terms of fight against doping of professional cyclists are analyzed using a systemic approach. This article aims at enlightening the factors that made it impossible to impede the spreading of doping via auto-transfusion as well as the attempts at restoring a balance among the professional cyclist elite. Through a qualitative inquiry, results show that timid attempts at gathering information prevent a full exposure of the affair and the punishment of its actors. The teleological priorities of many protagonists generate strategies preventing the identification of the network involved and the issuing of sanctions. Besides, we perceive the limits of a regulating system confronted with difficulties in characterizing the behaviors it is supposed to punish, with diverse legal and regulatory frameworks, and which is subject to an unwilling judicial authority.

Mothering Daughters and the Fair and Lovely Path to Success

Fair skin has always been a marker of success in India. This paper examines mother-daughter relations in television commercials for the fairness cream, "Fair and Lovely" through a recent television commercial of the brand. Earlier representations of mother-daughter relationships were marked by an absence broken only through depictions of the mother adorning the daughter or bidding farewell at the time of her marriage. A recent advertisement of Fair and Lovely, in contrast, depicts the daughter as a successful professional cyclist buying a new home for her mother. This paper analyzes the figure of the mother in this advertisement in the context of new-media representations of global womanhood. The argument of the paper is that the advertisement represents the mother as a passive observer of the daughter's entry into the global market. The apparently feminist theme of the advertisement hides a subtle message of the irrelevance of the older woman in a neoliberal economy.

Guilt in a Fluid Culture? A View from Positioning Theory

What is the status of guilt as an emotion in postmodern society? According to Zygmunt Bauman, postmodern consumer society supplies a cultural context in which guilt loses in importance. By definition, guilt is connected to a breach in shared rules, but rules and norms have allegedly become fluid today, thereby rendering clear breaches and ensuing guilt rare events. In this article, I provide an analysis of the emotion of guilt, notably by using the conceptual resources found in the emerging paradigm of positioning theory. By analyzing one public event in some detail—Bjarne Riis’ confession that he had used performance enhancing drugs as a professional cyclist—I argue that Bauman’s verdict must be challenged: From the debate in Danish society following Riis’ confession, I conclude that although the exact nature of guilt may have changed in consumer society, guilt is still seen as an important, and in many cases warranted, moral emotion.

Submaximal Relative Mechanical Power Output Is A Requirement To Be A Professional Road Cyclist

Numerous studies in the scientific literature show the determinant performance factors in professional road cyclists. Nevertheless, there are some submaximal variables, probably related to endurance cycling performance, that remain to be studied. PURPOSE: To assess new physiological and mechanical factors that could be considered a requirement to become a professional cyclist. METHODS: 161 cyclists of different levels of performance (13 professional and 148 amateurs, age 20.9 ± 3.9 yr) performed a laboratory test on a cyclergometer. Warm-up: 100W·10 min-1, initial workload: 200 W followed by 30 W increments every 4 min until exhaustion. All the tests were performed throughout a 10 year-period during the competitive phase of a cycling season (February to May). Dietary intake and resting period were controlled two days before the tests in order to maximize the test results. Subsequently, relative (W·kg-1) and absolute (W) mechanical power output at different fixed blood lactate concentrations (2, 3, 4, and 5 mmol·l-1), maximal absolute and relative mechanical power output (Wmax·kg-1, Wmax), and VO2max, expressed as L·min-1, mL·kg-1·min-1, and mL·kg-3/4·min-1, were measured and further analyzed using a backward stepwise multivariate logistic regression analysis to evaluate the aforementioned physiological parameters as potential predictors to be a professional cyclist. The level of significance was set at P < 0.05. RESULTS: The logistic regression analysis showed that VO2max expressed as mL·kg-1·min-1 and L·min-1 as well as mechanical power output expressed in absolute or relative terms were not good predictors to become a professional cyclist. Nevertheless, VO2max expressed as mL·kg-3/4·min-1 (P<0,01), W·kg-1(3mM) (P<0,01), W·kg-1(4mM) (P<0,01), and W·kg-1(5mM) (P<0,05) were significant predictors for becoming a professional road cyclist. CONCLUSION: To become a professional cyclist it is important to have a high relative VO2max (mL·kg-3/4·min-1), W·kg-1(2mM), W·kg-1(4mM), W·kg-1(5mM). It is important to emphasize that W·kg-1 at different submaximal intensities is also an important requirement to become a professional road cyclist, although these variables have not been well studied in the past. This study opens a new perspective to evaluate the performance of professional road cyclists.

Adaptation of pedaling rate of professional cyclist in mountain passes

The aim of this study was to analyze the pedaling rate (PR) adopted by professional cyclists in different mountain passes. PR, heart rate (HR), velocity and power to overcome gravity were monitored during special (HM), 1st (M1), 2nd (M2) and 3rd (M3) category mountain passes. HM and M1 within high-mountain stages were classified into mountain passes before the final mountain pass of the stage (M-BF) and mountain passes placed in the final of the stage (M-F). PR was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in M3 (82 +/- 1 rpm) than that in M2 (75 +/- 3 rpm), M1 (75 +/- 2 rpm) and HM (73 +/- 1 rpm). Velocity and power output decreased in the following order: M3, M2, M1 and HM. Also, greater values (P < 0.05) were observed in M-BF (24.1 +/- 0.8 km h(-1) and 308.5 +/- 10.4 W) and in M-F (17.6 +/- 0.9 km h(-1) and 270.1 +/- 9.9 W). In addition, PR was higher (P < 0.05) in M-BF (79 +/- 2 rpm) than that in M-F (73 +/- 1 rpm). In conclusion, PR was modified according to the characteristics and the race strategies adopted by the cyclists, thus the cyclists chose higher PR to improve their performance.

Cycling power output produced during flat and mountain stages in the Giro d'Italia: A case study

Until recently, the physiological demands of cycling competitions were mostly reflected by the measurement of heart rate and the indirect estimation of exercise intensity. The purpose of this case study was to illustrate the varying power output of a professional cyclist during flat and mountain stages of a Grand Tour (Giro d'Italia). Nine stage recordings of a cyclist of the 2005 Giro d'Italia were monitored using a mobile power measurement device (SRM Trainingssystem, Julich, Germany), which recorded direct power output and heart rate. Stages were categorized into flat (n = 5) and mountain stages (n = 4). Data were processed electronically, and the overall mean power in flat and mountain stages and maximal mean power for various durations were calculated. Mean power output was 132 W ± 26 (2.0 W · kg−1 ± 0.4) for the flat and 235 W ± 10 (3.5 W · kg−1 ± 0.1) for the mountain stages. Mountain stages showed higher maximal mean power (367 W) for longer durations (1800 s) than flat stages (239 W). Flat stages are characterized by a large variability of power output with short bursts of high power and long periods with reduced intensity of exercise, whereas mountain stages mostly require submaximal, constant power output over longer periods.

Infection: The uninvited universe

In Infection: the uninvited universe, Gerald N. Callahan, an immunologist at Colorado State University, dislodges the widespread belief that microbes are always a threat to human health. That this correction is necessary is evidence of the remarkable success of public health campaigns waged to control the transmission of infectious diseases through improved hygiene and routine vaccination. This volume complements his earlier text, Faith, madness, and spontaneous human combustion (1), which made scientific insights about the immune system accessible to a broad readership. Any family history before the mid-20th century reveals deaths, particularly of infants and children, from diphtheria, measles, typhoid fever, and other devastating infections. Microbes do cause disease, and we are indoctri­nated in early childhood to wash our hands, but should supermarkets provide disinfectant so that customers may wipe the handle of the shopping cart? Callahan explains the misconceptions about health perpetuated by the implication that we can make ourselves “germ free.” Using anecdotes from his family’s history and other sources, Callahan describes the complex balance between the human host and the microbes that make up our “uninvited universe” and how our well-being depends upon their presence. Combining scientific terminology with analogies and metaphors, Callahan makes the point that microbial colonization of humans is usually benign and that disturbing this harmonious coexistence has risks. Incorporating the concept of “good germs” into the germ theory of disease should help physicians to educate patients about antibiotic overuse, which may help slow the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. One caveat is that the author seems to suggest that the hygiene hypothesis, which proposes that childhood exposure to infectious agents decreases susceptibility to allergic diseases, is more of an established biological fact than many would conclude at this time. Similarly, biomedical research about the role of microbial flora in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory diseases has not yielded definitive answers. These disorders are best characterized as multifactorial in etiology, even though the author’s objective is to validate the general principle that colonizing organisms are valuable. That said, most people understand the importance of species diversity for maintaining sound ecological systems in the visible world of animals and plants. Readers of Infection should acquire a similar appreciation of the value of microbial diversity in the invisible ecosystem of the human body. Beyond bacterial colonization, Callahan also discusses endogenous retroviruses, retroviral transposons present in the human genome and their significance in mammalian evolution, and the possible bacterial origins of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells. One may question whether metaphor supports science effectively when the onset of professional cyclist Greg LeMond’s mitochondrial myopathy is characterized as “his bacteria began to fail,” but the example does make our dependence on coevolutionary processes vivid. Whereas many people know that 10% of our dry weight consists of bacteria, information about the extent to which microbial genetic material is embedded in mammalian genes and cells is likely to be new and intriguing to general readers. In effect, microbes did not need any invitation — they were there at our creation. Callahan subsequently describes ways in which disease results when the commensalism between microbes and humans becomes disrupted. He explains why infectious diseases are what he calls the “not-so-final” frontier, using the compelling examples of HIV/AIDS, malaria, diarrheal and respiratory tract infections, measles, and antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. The SARS and H5 avian influenza virus outbreaks exemplify both the need for vigilance and the difficulty of predicting microbial behavior. Readers will find good explanations about how viruses infect cells and use immune escape mechanisms to ensure their survival and transmission. In some cases, the author implies stronger causality between microbes and complex diseases, for example between infections and schizophrenia, than is documented. Readers will need to appreciate the uncertainties and avoid confusing hypotheses that are under active investigation as fact. How human behavior influences the emergence of new infectious diseases is portrayed in compelling vignettes. Any subsequent edition will probably require a description of how global warming is creating conditions that favor epidemics. In the final section, the author imagines the thoughts of the first person with SARS in Guangdong Province, China, and traces the subsequent global spread of this infectious agent. He recounts the death of a Colorado man from West Nile virus, tracks the introduction of the virus into the United States, and includes interviews with scientists that relay to the reader their experiences at the “front lines.” These and the subsequent chapters on anthrax, plague, and the 1918 influenza epidemic are well researched, and Callahan supplements the facts with engaging stories and personal observations. Written for a lay audience, Infection provides a thoughtful perspective on developments in the last 30 years in the areas of infectious diseases and microbiology and of the challenges that remain.

Non-Surgical Management of an Acetabular Fracture in a Professional Cyclist

Non-Surgical Management of an Acetabular Fracture in a Professional Cyclist

Power Output in Professional Cyclists during the Tour de France

Until present, workload in cycling competitions was mostly described through heart rate measurements and indirect estimation of exercise intensity. However, the most accurate variable to describe workload in cycling is to measure directly the power applied by the rider to propel his bicycle. PURPOSE: To illustrate direct power output of professional cyclist during a three-week stage race (Tour de France). METHODS: 143 Stage recordings of 15 riders of the 2005 Tour de France were monitored using a mobile power measurement device (SRM Trainingssystem, Julich, Germany), which recorded Power (W) and cadence (rpm). The studied riders were not contending for a high overall ranking but represented a broad range of skills from mountain specialists to team helpers. According to their topographic characteristics, stages were categorized into flat (7 stages/54 recordings), hilly (5/43) and mountain stages (6/46). Data was electronically processed, overall averages for power in different stage types, time in different power- and cadence bands and maximal mean power (MMP) for various durations were calculated. RESULTS: Power output averaged 218 +/− 21 W (3.1 +/− 0.3 W/kg) for flat, 234 +/−13 W (3.3 +/− 0.2W/kg) for mountain-, and 228 +/− 22 W (3.3 +/− 0.3 W/kg) for hilly stages. Mean cadence was 74 +/− 6.3 rpm for flat, 69 +/− 3.2 rpm for mountain-, and 70 +/− 5.2 rpm for hilly stages. Riders spent significantly more race time at medium- and high power output (76 % vs. 66 %) and lower cadence (56 % vs. 36 %) in mountain and hilly stages compared to flat stages. Mountain stages showed higher MMP (426 W vs. 385 W) for longer durations (1800 sec) and lower MMP (1046 W vs. 1179 W) for shorter durations (15 sec) compared to flat stages. CONCLUSION: Measurements of power output allow a direct description of the workload sustained by an athlete during cycling competition. Our data shows that different topographical characteristics of a race require distinct power output capacities with long, medium- to high intensity efforts at low cadence during mountain stages and short, high intensity power bursts during flat stages. As the presented data was obtained from riders without ambitions for a high overall ranking in the three week race, it can be speculated that riders aiming for a top overall finish display even higher average power outputs during decisive stages.

The Tour de France: a physiological review.

On 5 July 2003, the Tour de France (TDF) has celebrated 100th running. Instead of a chimney sweep competing during his free time (as in 1903), the recent winner is a highly trained, professional cyclist whose entire life-style has been dedicated to reach his pinnacle during this event. The TDF has been held successfully for 100 years, but the application of the physiologic sciences to the sport is a relatively recent phenomenon. Although some historical reports help to understand the unique physiological characteristics of this race, scientific studies were not available in Sports Science/Applied Physiology journals until the 1990s. The aim of this article is to review the history of the TDF. Special emphasis is placed on the last decade where classic physiology has been integrated into applied scientific cycling data.

Images in cardiovascular medicine. Diagnosis of myocarditis by cardiac tissue velocity imaging in an olympic athlete.

A 31-year-old professional cyclist (former Olympic and world champion) presented with 2 episodes in the previous 2 weeks of nonsustained (suspected as supraventricular) tachycardias with dizziness during road cycling competition. In the exercise ECG during cycle ergometry (increasing by 50 W every 3 minutes until 1 minute of 500 W was reached at exhaustion), a total of 7 monotopic ventricular extrasystoles at the first exercise stages was the only abnormality seen. A first Holter ECG over 22 hours, including a 4-hour training session without …

Case Report. Tinea corporis due to Microsporum canis in a professional cyclist

We report the case of a 20-year-old man, a professional cyclist, with multiple scaling plaques on his limbs that had been present for 40 days. Our case of tinea corporis presented some peculiarities related to the aetiological agent Microsporum canis and also its mode of transmission.

Case Report. Tinea corporis due to Microsporum canis in a professional cyclist

Case Report. Tinea corporis due to Microsporum canis in a professional cyclist

Effects of endurance training on the isocapnic buffering and hypocapnic hyperventilation phases in professional cyclists

Objectives—To evaluate the changes produced in both the isocapnic buffering and hypocapnic hyperventilation (HHV) phases of professional cyclists (n = 11) in response to endurance training, and to compare the...

Scientific approach to the 1-h cycling world record: a case study.

The purpose of this study was to describe the physiological and aerodynamic characteristics and the preparation for a successful attempt to break the 1-h cycling world record. An elite professional road cyclist (30 yr, 188 cm, 81 kg) performed an incremental laboratory test to assess maximal power output (W(max)) and power output (W(OBLA)), estimated speed (V(OBLA)), and heart rate (HR(OBLA)) at the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA). He also completed an incremental velodrome (cycling track) test (VT1), during which V(OBLAVT1) and HR(OBLAVT1) were measured and W(OBLAVT1) was estimated. W(max) was 572 W, W(OBLA) 505 W, V(OBLA) 52.88 km/h, and HR(OBLA) 183 beats/min. V(OBLAVT1), HR(OBLAVT1), and W(OBLAVT1) were 52.7 km/h, 180 beats/min, and 500.6 W, respectively. Drag coefficient and shape coefficient, measured in a wind tunnel, were 0. 244 and 0.65 m(2), respectively. The cyclist set a world record of 53,040 m, with an estimated average power output of 509.5 W. Based on direct laboratory data of the power vs. oxygen uptake relationship for this cyclist, this is slightly higher than the 497. 25 W corresponding to his oxygen uptake at OBLA (5.65 l/min). In conclusion, 1) the 1-h cycling world record is the result of the interaction between physiological and aerodynamic characteristics; and 2) performance in this event can be predicted using mathematical models that integrate the principal performance-determining variables.