Production In Finland Research Articles

Carbon reservoirs in wood products-in-use in Finland: current sinks and scenarios until 2050

This study addresses the question of how much carbon will be sequestered in wood products during the coming decades in Finland. Using sawnwood and other wood material consumption data since the 1950s and inventory data of carbon reservoirs of wood products in the Finnish construction and civil engineering sector, we first derive estimates for the carbon reservoirs in wood products-in-use in that sector. We then extend the estimate to include all wood products-in-use. We find that the carbon pool of wood products in the Finnish construction and civil engineering sector grew by about 12% since an inventory for 2000, and that the overall estimate for carbon reservoirs of Finnish wood products in 2004 was 26.6 million tons of carbon. In building the scenarios until 2050, econometric time series models accounting for the relationship between wood material consumption and the development of GDP were used. The results indicate that the range of carbon reservoirs of wood products in Finland will be 39.6–64.2 million tons of carbon in the year 2050. The impacts of different forms of the decay function on the time-path of a carbon sink and its value in wood products were also studied. When a logistic decay pattern is used, the discounted value of the predicted carbon sink of wood products in Finland is between EUR850 and EUR1380 million – at the price level of EUR15/CO ton – as opposed to 440–900 million euros, if a geometric decay pattern is used.2

Adoption of new antiglaucoma drugs in finland: Impact of changes in copayment

Background: Copayments are common measures intended to control drug expenditures and promote rational prescribing. In Finland, new antiglaucoma drugs start with a high copayment, but once sufficient clinical experience is available, they are reevaluated and can receive a lower copayment status. Objective: This study assessed the effect of changes in copayment level on the adoption of 2 antiglaucoma drugs. Methods: A retrospective analysis was performed from 1997 to 2001 using the Finnish national register of reimbursed drug purchases, which covers ∼98% of all antiglaucoma drug purchases in the country. There were 172,293 purchases of dorzolamide (plain or combined with timolol) and 281,377 purchases of latanoprost. An interrupted time-series design from ∼30 months before and 20 months after the change in copayment was used in the analysis. The main outcome measures were the numbers of defined daily doses (DDDs) purchased and the monthly numbers of patients who purchased the study drugs for the first time before and after the change in copayment. Results: A substantial increase in consumption of both dorzolamide and latanoprost was seen immediately after the introduction of the lower copayment. The monthly consumption of dorzolamide was 60,713 DDDs higher and the monthly consumption of latanoprost was 49,330 DDDs higher than expected according to the utilization trend during the higher copayment period. Twelve months later, the observed consumption of dorzolamide was 109% higher and that of latanoprost was 21% higher than if the copayment had remained the same. The number of new patients using the study drugs peaked within 2 months of the lower copayment, but the amount consumed per patient per day remained quite stable. Conclusions: Decreasing the copayment of a new antiglaucoma drug to the same level as the copayments of alternative drugs accelerated the adoption of these new products in Finland.

Energy use in conventional and organic milk and rye bread production in Finland

Abstract Energy use is one of the key indicators for developing more sustainable agricultural practices. For this reason, energy use in the production of conventional and organic milk and rye bread in Finland was studied by conducting a life cycle inventory (LCI). The product systems of milk and rye bread consisted of farming, production of fuels, electricity and fertilisers, as well as the processing phases of milk and bread, i.e. the dairy and the bakery. Transportation of fuels, raw materials and the final products was also taken into account. Primary energy consumption was 6.4 GJ in average conventional milk production and 4.4 GJ in average organic milk production, calculated per 1000 l of milk. For rye bread the values were 15.3 GJ (conventional) and 13.3 GJ (organic) per 1000 kg of rye bread. The proportion of renewable energy in the product systems studied varied between 7 and 16% of the total primary energy use, being somewhat higher in organic production. In milk production, energy use efficiency can be increased by favouring organic production. Making changes in the energy use patterns of bakeries would be the fastest way to affect the energy profile of bread, because bakery is responsible for 70 and 80% of the total energy consumption in conventional and organic bread production, respectively.

Creating value through advanced silvicultural services

A scenario study was used for creating alternative operational environments for wood production in Finland in the future. The most promising research topics in the alternative scenarios were then analyzed and summarized. The alienation of non-industrial private forest landowners from practical forestry, the need to foster entrepreneurship, and the need to improve cost-efficiency in silvicultural service provision were found to be the most important background factors. Also, counteracting the effects of threatening lack of labour for silvicultural works safeguards the future of wood production. Based on these results, theories on creating value through services were applied in order to develop a service chain for stand establishment and management of young stands of Norway spruce. The first step in the service chain was that of quality-guaranteed stand establishment service, where the establishment of a tree stand is sold to the customer as a total service commodity. The idea is that the service provider bears the risk of failure of stand establishment up to a certain stand age. Adequate premiums for covering the risk of failure were calculated. The second step involved looking into the possibilities of classifying established Norway spruce stands according to their potential for emerging need to undergo early tending within six years after planting. Reliable prediction of the need for early tending turned out to be impossible, despite the use of state-of-the-art classification algorithms. The third step was to study the effect of timing of tending on the consumption of working time in young Norway spruce stands. The common problem of great variation between sample plots in time studies was avoided by introducing a new method. Just a brief two-year time span between the alternative timing points of pre-commercial thinning resulted in marked changes in the consumption of working time. The simulated effects on the further development of the stands did not differ much from one another. The effective use of examples of such services, as presented in this study, requires information and communication technology applications for the management of stand and operational information.

Ash-forming elements in four Scandinavian wood species. Part 1: Summer harvest

Woody biomass in Finland and Sweden comprises mainly four wood species: spruce, pine, birch and aspen. To study the ash, which may cause problems for the combustion device, one tree of each species were cut down and prepared for comparisons with fuel samples. Well-defined samples of wood, bark and foliage were analyzed on 11 ash-forming elements: Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn, Na, K, P, S and Cl. The ash content in the wood tissues (0.2–0.7%) was low compared to the ash content in the bark tissues (1.9–6.4%) and the foliage (2.4–7.7%). The woods’ content of ash-forming elements was consequently low; the highest contents were of Ca (410–1340 ppm) and K (200–1310), followed by Mg (70–290), Mn (15–240) and P (0–350). Present in the wood was also Si (50–190), S (50–200) and Cl (30–110). The bark tissues showed much higher element contents; Ca (4800–19,100 ppm) and K (1600–6400) were the dominating elements, followed by Mg (210–2400), P (210–1200), Mn (110–1100) and S (310–750), but the Cl contents (40–330) were only moderately higher in the bark than in the wood. The young foliage (shoots and deciduous leaves) had the highest K (7100–25,000 ppm), P (1600–5300) and S (1100–2600) contents of all tissues, while the shoots of spruce had the highest Cl contents (820–1360) and its needles the highest Si content (5000–11,300). This paper presented a new approach in fuel characterization: the method excludes the presence of impurities, and focus on different categories of plant tissues. This made it possible to discuss the contents of ash element in a wide spectrum of fuel-types, which are of large importance for the energy production in Finland and Sweden.

Manipulating Flower Induction Through Temperature and Photoperiod Fluctuations

In Norway and Finland strawberry cultivation in greenhouses is limited. However, interest in strawberry cultivation in greenhouses or under high tunnels is increasing rapidly. Controlled environments offer growers an opportunity to produce strawberries year-round, and specifically during the off-season (September to June) when Norwegian and Finnish strawberries are not readily available and carry a high price. In Norway, Grimsby Gartneri has developed one method for winter production of strawberries, using artificial light. In this system ‘Korona’ strawberry plants are induced to flower three times during the season using artificial short days resulting in a continual harvest from November until June. In Finland, there are few greenhouse strawberry producers. They grow Junebearing cultivars and obtain a maximum of two crops a year, in the spring and in the fall. Artificial light is not used in this production system. In order to develop out-of-season strawberry production in Finland, artificial short day treatments have been studied at the University of Helsinki since 1998

Greenhouse gas emissions from final harvest fuel chip production in Finland

Abstract Renewable energy sources have been identified to play an important role in mitigating climate change. The main reason is that carbon dioxide emission is avoided when fossil fuels are replaced. This paper presents a study focusing on direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions from fuel chip production in Finland. The fuel chips studied were produced from logging residue at final harvest. Five different fuel production chains were considered. The calculations showed that fuel chip production from the residues of final harvest is very efficient from the viewpoint of energy use during collection, chipping and transportation. Only an input of 2–3% of the produced energy is needed, which means that roughly 30 to 50 units of bioenergy is produced for every unit of (fossil) energy consumed. The emissions from collecting, chipping and transporting the residues were evaluated to be about 4–7 kg CO 2 eq MWh chip - 1 depending on harvesting and chipping methods and transportation distance. Emissions of greenhouse gases (other than CO 2 ) from burning forest residues in a modern CHP-plant were evaluated to be small, about 2 kg CO 2 eq MWh chip - 1 . If nitrogen losses are compensated for with fertilisation, the additional greenhouse gas emissions were calculated to be about 7 kg CO 2 eq MWh chip - 1 . The calculations showed that in a favourable situation as much as 97–98% of the greenhouse gas emissions could be avoided by substituting a fossil fuel with wood fuel, but even in an unfavourable situation the amount avoided should be higher than 75%.

Finland

Expanded domestic wood product consumption: The recent increases in apparent consumption of wood products in Finland have occurred in plywood and sawn wood, where the domestic consumption has doubled over the last decade. This is partly due to macroeconomic recovery but the parallel promotion programs on wood use in house construction and repair have also contributed to the development. | Diversified non-industrial forest land tenure and commercial timber production: Private ownership is diversified into small ownership units in Finland. The size distribution of private forest holdings is polarised: fragmentation and parcellisation is going on along with consolidation. The major ownership transfers are through bequests and in recent years only about 10% of the holdings have been sold on the free market. The latter restricts effectively the formation of large-scale ownership and the accompanied possibilities on scale economics in commercial forestry as well as the possibilities of effective timber management investments. Joint efforts have been frequently been applied in silvicultural activities, such as road construction and ditching, to achieve positive scale economics. There are some joint owned forests by non-industrial private forest owners (NIPFs) and these forests are managed commercially by experts.

Nonparametric Tests for Profit Maximization with Incomplete Data: Application to the Pulp and Fine Paper Production in Finland

Abstract Forest sector models give relevant information to decision makers only if they are based on correct economic hypotheses. This requires that the data from which the model parameters are estimated are consistent with the a priori assumptions made on market agents' behavior and competition patterns. For static models, rather simple nonparametric tests exist for checking such consistency. Such tests also provide an analyst with insights on possible errors in the data and the suitability of the data for the particular econometric model that the analyst has in mind. This article proposes data tests for the competitive or noncompetitive profit-maximization hypothesis that can also be used with incomplete data. The tests are applied to quarterly data on the production of pulp and fine paper in Finland. It is found that the data may not represent profit-maximizing price takers. Although this can be due to, e.g., integrated production, missing dynamics, or noncompetitive behavior—a hypothesis that was indeed found to be consistent with the fine paper data—it is evident that the modeler should not use these data in estimating a parametric industry model that builds on price-taking profit-maximizing behavior. The results emphasize the importance of testing the data before modeling. FOR. SCI. 51(1):19–28.

Hemp Seed Production in Finland

Abstract This is the third in a series of “Hemp production notes,” which focuses on the unique challenge of growing hemp at high latitudes in the European Community. This paper briefly reviews the historical considerations of hemp in Finland, addresses some of the problems inherent at high latitudes and identifies specific market potentials for the Nordic production of hemp seed as an industrial crop.

Impact of de-coupling agricultural support on dairy investment and milk production volume in Finland

This study analyses the impacts of de-coupling of agricultural support from production in Finland. A dynamic agricultural sector model, which includes 17 production regions and endogenous investments and technical change, is used in the analysis. Investment in different production techniques is dependent on the relative profitability and the spread of each technique in the population of heterogeneous farms. There are relatively few large farms which use efficient production techniques in Finland. De-coupling weakens the incentive for investment in dairy production and causes a temporary but significant slow down in dairy investments and technical change. Consequently, de-coupling is likely to result in a significant drop in milk and beef production in the next 10–20 year period if no corrective measures are taken in agricultural policy in less-favoured areas such as Finland. However, a slow recovery of investment and output levels are expected in the long run.

How do small rural food-processing firms compete?A resource-based approach to competitive strategies

The study was concerned with the competitive strategies of small food-processing firms in rural Finland and their ability to achieve and maintain a competitively advantaged position in relation to larger food companies in the dynamic and mature food market. Competitive strategies were approached from the resource-based view (RBV) that emphasises internal firm factors as sources of competitive advantage and long-term success. As strategic choices, differentiation was specifically considered. The main objective was to explain the relationships between resources, competitive advantage and firm success. To understand the ambiguous nature of the resources in the small-scale food production context, the study introduced a distinction between strategic resources and basic resources and the strategic relationship between them. The empirical part of the study was based on quantitative analyses of the survey data collected from 238 small (less than 20 persons), food-processing firms in rural Finland. The sample firms represented different branches of the food industry and 39% of them operated in connection with a farm. The linkage between resources, competitive advantage and firm success was investigated by means of cluster analysis, mean comparisons and LISREL modelling. The results demonstrated that there are some typical features relating to small-scale food production in Finland. The results also revealed that small-scale, rural food processing firms do not constitute a homogenous group of their own, but that different strategies among small firms can be identified as well. The analyses proved that a linkage between resources, competitive advantage and firm success can be identified, which is consistent with resource-based logic. However, according to the findings, following a particular strategy does not automatically ensure that a firm will achieve success. The analysis also showed that strategic resources and basic resources are strongly interlinked and that the relationship between basic resources and success was, however, considerably stronger than the link between strategic resources and success. The study concludes that resource deployment – in terms of both strategic resources and basic resources – should be balanced in order for a small food-processing firm to have the opportunity to establish a relatively favourable position in the market. Based on the results, theoretical, methodological and managerial implications are suggested and ideas for the further research are provided.;

EFFECTS OF BIOLOGICAL SPRAYS, MULCHING MATERIALS, AND IRRIGATION METHODS ON GREY MOULD IN ORGANIC STRAWBERRY PRODUCTION

Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) causes severe losses in organic strawberry production in Finland. The effects of different biological sprays, mulches, and irrigation methods on the incidence of grey mould and shelf life of harvested berries have been and are being studied in field trials at MTT Agrifood Research Finland in Ruukki, Mikkeli, and Jokioinen during 2000-2002. The biological sprays are composed of seaweed, garlic, and compost extracts, silicon, Trichoderma spp., and Gliocladium catenulatum sprays. The mulching materials used included black plastic, green mulch, straw, buckwheat husks, flax fibre matting and wood chips from deciduous and coniferous trees. Biological sprays and mulches are being studied in Ruukki and Mikkeli, using the cultivar 'Jonsok'. The effects of drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation on grey mould are currently being examined in Jokioinen with 2 cultivars, 'Jonsok' and 'Bounty'. In the first harvesting year 2001 the effects of different biological sprays and irrigation methods on the incidence of grey mould and shelf life of the berries were insignificant. Mulching materials significantly affected grey mould incidence. Buckwheat husk mulch caused the most severe losses compared with other mulches.

Capital and its productivity in Finland, 1975–2001

The fundamental role of capital in economic growth has long been known. How capital should be defined and measured has been the subject of much discussion. The starting point of this study is methodological, as we define starting from a neo-classical production function the indicators for capital input and compare these with the traditional capital stocks of national accounts. The origin of Finnish capital measurement is also traced. In the empirical part of the paper, we apply the different capital measures to Finnish data for 1975–2001. This period is interesting as the early 1990s were turbulent times for Finland, with GDP declining by 1 1 per cent. We find as a result of our number-crunching efforts that there was a spectacular increase in capital productivity growth after the recession. Finally, we observe how our new estimates accord with the previous view on how capital has influenced recent Finnish historical economic development. Our main result is a resolution of the Artto-Pohjola paradox, as we show that a high rate of return was combined with a low capital productivity growth in 1975–1990.

Feeding approaches for biogas production from animal wastes and industrial effluents

The objective of this study was to determine the specific methane yields of four grass species (cocksfoot, tall fescue, reed canary grass and timothy) cultivated under boreal conditions as well as how harvesting time and year of cultivation affects the specific methane yields per ha. The specific methane yields of all grasses and all harvests varied from 253 to 394 Nl CH4/kg volatile solids (VS) added. The average specific methane yield of the 1st harvest of all grasses was higher than the 2nd harvests. In this study the methane and energy yields from different harvest years were ranged from 1200 to 3600 Nm3 CH4/ha/a, corresponding from 12 to 36 MWhCH4/ha/a. The methane yield per hectare of the 1st harvest was always higher than that of the 2nd harvest per hectare because of the higher dry matter yield and specific methane yield. High biomass yield per hectare, good digestibility and regrowth ability after harvesting are important factors when choosing grass species for biogas production. If 30% of fallow and the second harvest of grassland were cultivated grasses and harvested for biogas production in Finland, the energy produced could be 4.9 TWhCH4.

Optimal beef cattle management under agricultural policy reforms in Finland

The supply for domestic beef has been decreasing sharply since Finland joined the European Union (EU) because profitability of beef production has been low. The goal of this study is to search for optimal beef management practices that increase returns on beef production in Finland. Numerical dynamic programming (DP) is used to simultaneously optimise feeding and timing of slaughtering. The DP-algorithm is solved under alternative subsidy, output price, and silage price scenarios. At 1998 prices and subsidies, the optimal carcass weight is estimated above 250 kg. The European Agenda 2000 reform is predicted to decrease the optimal carcass weight to 200 kg, which is 50 kg lower than under the 1998 prices and subsidies. This reform will increase farmer returns significantly and its income effect depends crucially on the price of silage. The results indicate also that the reform will result in adjustment of feeding. Particularly, farmers having high silage production costs will substitute feed concentrates for roughage in the diet. A farmer is entitled to a premium subsidy of FIM 200 (e33.63), provided that the carcass weight of a culled animal exceeds 270 kg. But when the Agenda 2000 reform is fully implemented, this premium subsidy is not large enough to supply carcasses heavier than 270 kg. The results suggest that carcass weights of at least 270 kg would require a premium subsidy of FIM 400-800 (e67-134). Rearing heavy animals will significantly increase production costs and, therefore, most of the subsidy will be taken away from the farm in terms of increased costs.;

Carbon dynamics in wood products

The carbon (C) reservoir of wood products in Finnishconstruction and civil engineering was estimated by three inventoriesincluding the years 1980, 1990 and 1995. The inventory method ismainly based on the statistics of Finnish building stock. The use of differentconstruction materials in different parts of buildings is estimated for eachbuilding type. Information collected through building permits includes thematerials of bearing frames and facades. More information about the useof wood products in construction is gathered by many enquiries. The mixof construction materials has changed during each decade. Furthermore, thetimber stocks in construction not subject to permission and in civilengineering (e.g. bridges) were estimated. The C reservoir is calculated onthe basis of dry matter content of wooden construction materials. The timeparameters of a simple exponential decay model and a more detailed Cbalance model of wood products were calibrated to the inventory resultsusing the estimated wood flows to construction as model inputs.According to the inventories the C pool in sawn wood and wood-basedpanels of the Finnish building stock was 8.7 Tg C in 1980, 10.7 Tg C in1990 and 11.5 Tg C in 1995. The mean annual increases, 0.20 Tg Cfrom 1980 to 1990 and 0.15 Tg C from 1990 to 1995, areapproximately 1.3% and 0.8% of the fossil fuel C emissions in Finlandduring the same periods. When also taking into account construction notsubject to permission and civil engineering works, the estimated C stock ofwood products in Finland was 16.5 Tg C in 1995, which is about 3.3 MgC per capita and approximately 2.4% of the C reservoir in Finnish forestbiomass. The total C reservoir of wood products (excluding wood wasteand paper products) coming from Finnish forests might be as much as 7%of the standing biomass if exported wood products are also included. Theaverage lifetime of sawn wood in Finnish construction is less than 40 years.

SURVIVAL OF CAMPYLOBACTER JEJUNI IN MARINATED AND NONMARINATED CHICKEN PRODUCTS

Consumption of chicken products has been increasing. Most of these products in Finland are sold as fresh marinated pieces in consumer packages. The impact of marination on the survival of enteric pathogens is not known. We studied the survival of Campylobacter jejuni on marinated chicken drumsticks and sliced breast strips stored at a refrigerator temperature of +4C. The marinade was an emulsion of vegetable oil and water with spices, NaCl (5.9% wt/wt) and its pH was adjusted to 4.5 with lactic and acetic acid. The survival of C. jejuni was similar in marinated and nonmarinated chicken drumsticks and strips. The organisms were detected for at least nine days at the higher inoculum level (101– 102 CFU/mL) and for at least five days at the lower inoculum level (101– 102 CFU/mL). C. jejuni, inoculated into plain marinade and stored at 4C, was detected after 24 h but not after 48 h. Our results revealed that marination procedure used to reduce and prevent the growth of spoilage organisms does not significantly decrease the survival of Campylobacter jejuni in chicken products.

Fine-particle emissions of energy production in Finland

The aim of this study was to find out the fine-particle emissions (PM 2.5) of different energy production processes in Finland. The main purpose was to compare the calculated emission factors between different energy production concepts. The purpose was also to define what is known about fine-particle emissions and what should still be studied/measured. Only those energy production processes that produce a significant amount of direct emissions of solid particles have been treated here, i.e. pulverized combustion and oil burners from burner combustion, fluidized bed combustion processes, grate boilers, recovery boilers and diesel power plants. Secondary particles from gaseous pollutants have not been considered within this study. In pulverized coal combustion the particle emission is composed mainly of particles smaller than 5 μm in aerodynamic diameter. Roughly half of the total mass of particle emission is composed of fine particles (PM 2.5). Depending on boiler size category and particle separation devices, the specific emission factor for fine particles is 1–30 mg MJ −1. For pulverized combustion of peat, ca. 20–25% of the total mass of particle emission is fine particles, and then the specific emission factor is between 5 and 8 mg MJ −1. For recovery boilers, the fine particle portion of the total particle emission is 50–60% (by mass) and the specific emission factor for fine particles varies considerably according to the boiler size category, being between 12 and 77 mg MJ −1. For oil burners, grate boilers and fluidized bed combustion processes, the fine-particle portion of the total particle emission could not be determined, because there were no applicable measurement results at hand. For these combustion techniques, more public measurements are needed in order to clarify the amount and composition of fine particles with different fuel varieties. Additionally, the chemical composition of fine particles is a very important feature when human health effects caused by particulate matter are considered.

The role of peatlands in Finnish wood production – an analysis based on large-scale forest scenario modelling

Using the Finnish MELA model, a set of scenarios were produced and used to map the possibilities and risks surrounding the utilisation of peatlands in wood production in Finland. One of the scenarios was an estimate of allowable-cut calculated by maximising the net present value of the future revenues using a four per cent interest rate subject to non-decreasing flow of wood, saw logs and net income over a 50-year period, and net present value after the 50 year period greater or equal than in the beginning. The estimate for maximum regionally sustained removal in 1996–2005 was 68 million m3 per year – approaching 74 million m3 during the next decades. In this scenario, 14 per cent of all cuttings during the period 1996–2005 would be made on peatlands, which comprise ca. 31 per cent of the total area of forestry land. By the year 2025, the proportion of peatland cuttings would increase to over 20 per cent. The increase in future cutting possibilities on peatlands compensated for a temporary decrease in cuttings and growing stock on mineral soils. The allowable-cut effect was especially pronounced in northern Finland, where peatlands play an important role in wood production. In addition, the sensitivity of cutting possibilities for assumptions related to growth and price were analysed. The estimate of maximum sustainable yield as defined here seems to be fairly robust on the whole, except in northern Finland where the cutting scenarios were sensitive to the changes in the price of birch pulpwood. The proportion of peatland stands that are profitable for timber production depends on the interest rate: the higher the rate of interest the less peatland stands are thinned. The effect of cutting profile on future logging conditions and resulting costs were analysed in two forestry centres. If clear cuttings on mineral soils are to be cut first, an increase in future logging costs is inevitable.