Productive Knowledge Of Collocations Research Articles

Assessing English language learners’ collocation knowledge: a systematic review of receptive and productive measurements

Abstract Since collocation knowledge is integral to second language vocabulary depth, it necessitates a careful examination of various measurement approaches. To this end, the current paper provides an overview and evaluation of extant collocation measurements used in empirical studies on L2 English (N = 153) published between 1980 and 2023 indexed in the SSCI, SCIE, AHCI, SCOPUS, and ERIC databases. Six instruments, seven item formats, and three other assessment tools were identified and reviewed for the assessment of receptive and productive collocation knowledge. The review focused on the collocation knowledge measured by each tool, the instrument and/or item format employed, item design, reported reliability, and potential drawbacks of employing each instrument and item format in research or practice. The review proposes several theoretical and practical considerations for future assessments of and research on English collocation knowledge.

A Mixed-Methods Investigation of the Effectiveness and Perceptions of Learning English Collocations Using the Keyword Method and the Rote Learning Method.

This study investigated the effectiveness, as well as EFL learners' perceptions, of the keyword method (KWM) in comparison to the rote learning method (RLM) for the learning of English collocations. A controlled laboratory-like setting was adopted for randomly assigning participants to the KWM group (n = 15) or the RLM group (n = 15). After receiving training on the use of the respective strategy, the two participant groups applied the respective strategy to the learning of collocations. Collocations were assessed at three different time periods, and additional data regarding perceptions of the two strategies were elicited through one-on-one post hoc interviews. The quantitative data revealed that the KWM was superior to the RLM in terms of the long-term retention of productive collocation knowledge; knowledge of adjective-noun collocations was retained better than verb-noun collocations. The qualitative data revealed that participants deemed that the KWM was unfamiliar but effective. Additionally, participants claimed that the RLM was facile but may result in a high rate of forgetting. The pedagogical implications are that foreign language teachers should encourage language learners to use the KWM for learning English collocations. Although the KWM has been recommend by many researchers, it is still rarely advocated for by foreign language instructors. Therefore, it is important that both EFL learners and teachers should be aware of the KWM's long-term retention effects on the learning of English collocations and apply this vocabulary learning strategy (VLS) in their actual learning and teaching context.

Second language productive knowledge of collocations: Does knowledge of individual words matter?

AbstractRecent studies suggest that developing L2 receptive knowledge of single words is associated with increased receptive knowledge of collocations. However, no study to date has directly examined the interrelationship between productive word knowledge and productive collocation knowledge. To address this gap, the present study administered a controlled productive word test and a controlled productive collocation test to 27 native English speakers and 55 nonnative speakers (L1-Arabic). The tests assessed word and collocation knowledge of the most frequent 3,000 lemmas in English (1K, 2K, and 3K frequency bands). The test scores were analyzed using three mixed-effects models for the following outcome variables: collocation appropriacy, collocation frequency, and collocation strength. Results revealed productive word knowledge as a significant predictor of productive collocation knowledge, though with a small effect. This association was omnipresent regardless of frequency band. We discuss implications of these findings for L2 learning and teaching.

A longitudinal study into learners’ productive collocation knowledge in L2 German and factors affecting the learning

AbstractThis longitudinal study explored the roles of item- and learner-related variables in L2 learners’ development of productive collocation knowledge (L1 = Dutch; L2 = German; NLearners= 50). Learners’ form recall knowledge of 35 target collocations was measured three times over a 3-year period. The item-related variables investigated were L1-L2 congruency, corpus frequency, association strength, and imageability. We also explored the learner-related variables L2 prior productive vocabulary knowledge and L2 immersion. Mixed-effects regression modeling indicated a significant effect of time, congruency, and prior productive vocabulary knowledge on learners’ collocation learning. While learners’ knowledge of congruent collocations remained relatively stable after year one, knowledge of incongruent collocations increased significantly. Learners’ prior productive vocabulary knowledge was clearly associated with growth of productive collocation knowledge, but besides overall growth there were instances of attrition.

The importance of psychological and social factors in adult SLA: The case of productive collocation knowledge in L2 Swedish of L1 French long-term residents

AbstractThe study investigates how psychological and social factors relate to productive collocation knowledge in late L2 learners of Swedish (French L1) (N = 59). The individual factors are language aptitude (measured through the LLAMA aptitude test), reported language use, social networks, acculturation, and personality. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that positive effects were found for LLAMA D (phonetic memory), LLAMA E (sound-symbol correspondence), reported language use, and length of residence (LOR). Furthermore, a negative effect was found for the personality variable Open-mindedness. These variables explained 63% (adjusted R²) of the variance, which represents large effects compared to other studies on individual factors. In sum, the findings confirm earlier results on the importance of language aptitude and language use for productive collocation knowledge. They also add evidence of the importance of personality and LOR. In sum, cognitive and social factors combine to explain different outcomes in adult L2 acquisition.

The Receptive and Productive Knowledge of Collocations: The Effects of Frequency, Exposure, and Phonological Short-term Memory

The present study examined the receptive and productive knowledge of collocations of second language (L2) and heritage speakers of Korean and also investigated the influence of phrasal frequency, exposure to Korean, and phonological short-term memory (PSTM). Seventeen L2 learners and 14 heritage speakers of Korean were tested on 30 Korean noun-verb collocations, which varied in phrasal frequency, using an acceptability judgment task and a collocation completion test. The results showed that both L2 and heritage speakers demonstrated considerable receptive knowledge of Korean collocations while productive knowledge was more limited for both groups. The mixed-effects modelling results of four independent variables of interest (i.e., phrasal frequency, exposure via media, academic use, and PSTM) showed that phrasal frequency was the only significant predictor of receptive knowledge of collocations for both L2 and heritage speakers; none of the four factors had a significant impact on productive knowledge of collocations for either group. These data are discussed in relation to previous studies on collocation development of L2 learners and heritage speakers.

Measuring Receptive and Productive Collocational Knowledge of Korean Learners of English

The purpose of the study is two-fold: (a) to investigate L2 learners’ receptive and productive collocational knowledge concerning the learners’ lexical proficiency levels, and (b) to explore the degree of their productive collocational knowledge. A total of 358 Korean university students participated in this study and completed a Vocabulary Size Test, two receptive collocation tests, and one productive collocation test. The results revealed that there was significance among the scores of three collocation tests. It is also observed that receptive and productive collocational competence tends to increase as L2 learners’ vocabulary size develops. Regarding productive collocational knowledge gains, significant differences were found among collocation combinations but no interaction effect was found between combination types and vocabulary levels. The findings indicated that L2 learners need to be aware of the importance of learning collocational knowledge while teachers need to attempt to help them notice high-frequency collocations that regularly occur in various contexts.

Productive collocation knowledge and advanced CEFR-levels in Swedish as a second language: A conceptual replication of Forsberg Lundell, Lindqvist & Edmonds (2018)

This study constitutes a conceptual replication of Forsberg Lundell et al. (2018), who investigated whether productive collocation knowledge – a linguistic feature known to be indicative of high-level L2 proficiency – developed between the B2 and C1 levels of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages scale in second-language (L2) French. The results showed significant development. The present study set out to replicate these findings in L2 Swedish, in order to investigate whether the reported development would stand cross-linguistic validation. To this end, a test of productive collocation knowledge in L2 Swedish was developed based on 22 separate computerized newspaper corpora of Swedish, searchable via the corpus tool Korp at SprakbankenText (Swedish Language Bank). The method of the item selection was identical to that of the Forsberg Lundell et al., but the replication could only be conceptual since the reference corpora are different, from different languages. The test was conducted comparing participants from B2 and C1 levels in Swedish (N = 60). The results replicated the original study, confirming a significant difference in productive collocation knowledge between the B2 and C1 levels. Furthermore, in addition to the replication, the study explored frequency and Mutual Information score as potential factors for collocation item difficulty. The study found no significant effects for frequency or for Mutual Information score. Finally, the impact of cross-linguistic similarity was also investigated, grouping the results for participants with Germanic and non-Germanic first languages. This analysis did not point to any noteworthy effects.

Mobile-assisted vocabulary learning: Investigating receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge of Chinese EFL learners

AbstractConsiderable research has been conducted on the advancement of mobile technologies to facilitate vocabulary learning and acquisition in a second language (L2). However, whether mobile platforms lead to a comprehensive mastery of both receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge has seldom been addressed in previous literature. This study investigated English vocabulary learning from engagement with mobile-based word cards and paper word cards in the context of the Chinese university classroom. A total of 85 undergraduate students were recruited to take part in the study. The students were divided into two groups, a mobile learning group and a paper-based learning group, and tested on two word knowledge components: receptive knowledge of the form–meaning connection and productive knowledge of collocations. Both the digital and non-digital word cards enhanced L2 vocabulary learning, and the results showed that the mobile application (app) promoted greater gains than physical word cards.

Study On the Use of Collocations in Business Class Learners

Previous studies have reported lack of collocational competence and difficulties among English as a second language (ESL) learners. However, collocation is crucial in second language acquisition. This research examined the receptive and productive knowledge of collocations among the business students of COMSATS University Islamabad Vehari Campus who studied ESL. It also investigated the gap in the use of collocations at a receptive and productive level. The sample included 61 males and 39 females out of the total sample size of 100. Employing a quantitative approach, we gathered the data through a questionnaire and two collocations tests, and we analysed them via SPSS version 20. The overall result of the collocation test indicated that 66.4% of the respondents had the correct answer at the receptive level compared with only 33.7% at the productive level. Moreover, the statistical result presented a great gap in the ability to utilise collocations at the productive and receptive levels. This result also affirmed that despite their ability to understand the collocations, the students had difficulties in identifying proper English collocations confidently. Local and native language experiences might be one of the reasons that caught the students from being more confident in identifying the English collocations.

Towards modelled testing of productive knowledge of collocations

Accurate use of collocations is seen as a measure of a learner’s proficiency in a second/foreign language. However, research is not conclusive as to how to best test productive knowledge of collocations and, more fundamentally, there is no agreement on how vocabulary size, i.e. word comprehension, influences collocation production within a constrained or unconstrained context. This article elaborates on a battery of tests aimed at examining these issues. The tests were presented to both English as Foreign Language (EFL) and English as Second Language (ESL) students. The findings indicate that constrained and unconstrained contexts may represent different levels of productive knowledge, casting doubt on the definition of productive knowledge collapsing the two contexts – constrained and unconstrained – into one construct. Furthermore, both levels are influenced by the size of a learner’s receptive knowledge, which confirms Gyllstad’s earlier observation on the relationship between receptive knowledge of collocations and vocabulary size, which is extended here to include productive knowledge. On the basis of these results, we argue that a new definition for ‘productive knowledge of collocations’ is in order, where productive knowledge is categorised according to four levels based on the amount of context provided to the learner.

Receiving different types of input for learning and retention of English grammatical collocations in EFL classrooms

ABSTRACTThe present study examined the effects of different types of written input on the learning and retention of collocational knowledge. Eighty-three second language (L2) learners from four intact classes were divided into a control group and three treatment groups. The treatment groups were provided with infrequent grammatical collocations embedded in genuine input, elaborated input, and modified elaborated input. They were exposed to the collocations during five instructional sessions and were assessed on their receptive and productive collocation knowledge using immediate and delayed posttests. The results indicated that (a) receptive and productive collocation knowledge can be learned incidentally through multiple exposures in genuine, elaborated, and modified elaborated input and (b) modified elaborated input, which induces more focus on form (FonF), can lead to significant immediate and long-term gains in receptive collocation knowledge.

Non-nativelike outcome of naturalistic child L2 acquisition of Japanese: The case of noun–verb collocations

Abstract Many second language (L2) studies have shown that naturalistic L2 acquisition beginning from childhood leads to nativelike proficiency. The current study investigated whether the acquisition of such proficiency would be guaranteed, by examining a potential gap in the seemingly nativelike L2 proficiency of child L2 starters. At issue was the productive knowledge of noun–verb collocations by child L2 starters of Japanese (n=74, age 13–18) whose age of arrival (AOA) was between 0 and 11 and whose length of residence (LOR) was between 5 and 18 years. The collocation test included only items that were easy for native speakers (NSs) (n=162, age 13) age-matched for the youngest L2 participants. About one-third of the L2 participants, including the earliest arrivals, scored below the NS range on the collocation test. The current study concludes that early L2 onset does not guarantee nativelike productive knowledge of collocations, even when the collocations in question are very easy for NSs. The study also discusses pedagogical implications for child L2 starters, who are generally believed to become nativelike with ease.

Probing the depths: Can both size and depth of productive vocabulary predict academic performance?

This study investigates the link between breadth (or size) and depth of vocabulary knowledge, and the relationship between the latter and academic proficiency. Breadth of vocabulary knowledge was measured using a productive version of the Vocabulary Levels Test (Laufer & Nation, 1995), while depth was operationalised by productive knowledge of collocations. A small sample of 60 university students of English whose examination scores were closest to the 25 th , 50 th and 75 th percentiles was selected. Relationships were determined between breadth of vocabulary knowledge and depth of vocabulary knowledge on the one hand, and between depth of vocabulary knowledge and academic proficiency (represented by examination scores) on the other. While a relationship between breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge was found, suggesting a link between smaller vocabulary size and the production of deviant multiword units for the group as a whole, the relationship between depth of vocabulary knowledge and academic performance was not proved conclusively. It should, however, be kept in mind that numbers were relatively small. Further investigations using larger samples might find a more robust relationship.

Productive Collocation Knowledge at Advanced CEFR Levels: Evidence from the Development of a Test for Advanced L2 French

Les auteures se penchent sur la relation entre les connaissances productives liées aux collocations et les niveaux élevés de l’échelle du Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues (CECR). Elles étudient plus précisément le potentiel de progression du niveau B2 au niveau C1 du CECR grâce à l’élaboration d’une épreuve de collocation productive en français langue seconde. Cette épreuve vise les collocations fréquentes verbe-nom dans le français langue seconde écrit, relevées à l’aide de la base de données Les Voisins de Le Monde. Les auteures présentent trois différentes études pilotes réalisées à la fois auprès de locuteurs natifs et d’autres locuteurs du français (dont les langues maternelles diffèrent), pour un total de 152participants. Le test est validé grâce à une épreuve de maîtrise générale et une épreuve de fiabilité. La dernière épreuve, menée auprès de 47 locuteurs du français de langue maternelle différente, consiste dans un test comportant au total de 30items dont les résultats présentent d’importants écarts pour les participants de niveau B2 et les participants de niveau C1. En plus d’offrir un outil efficace d’évaluation linguistique, cette étude confirme la place essentielle des connaissances productives liées aux collocations, aux niveaux élevés de maîtrise de la langue seconde.

Measuring productive collocational knowledge of the most frequent words

Collocational knowledge is associated with writing and speaking skills. Productive skills are essential for English for Academic Purposes (EAP) students who express themselves in oral presentations or written assignments. Therefore, diagnostic measurement of collocational knowledge is important, especially in regard to the most frequent 1,000 word families that cover 81% and 85% of written and spoken text. This study measured 46 Iranian university EAP students’ productive collocational knowledge of the words at the 1,000 word frequency level. The findings indicate that while participants had the productive form‐meaning knowledge of the words, they did not seem to have extensive collocational knowledge of the same words. This assists in diagnosing area of weakness and the degree to which instructional emphasis on high frequency words might improve their knowledge.

Improving English Learners’ Productive Collocation Knowledge: The Effects of Involvement Load, Spacing, and Intentionality

This article reports on a classroom-based experiment that tested the effects of threevocabulary teaching constructs (involvement load, spacing, and intentionality)on the learning of English verb-noun collocations—for example, “shelve a plan.”Laufer and Hulstijn’s (2001) “involvement load” predicts that the higher themotivational-cognitive load of a task, the more effectively it promotes word retention.“Spacing” refers to the advantage of spreading out learning opportunitiesfor words as opposed to massing them. “Intentionality” comprises two word processingmodes: intentional learning (posttest announced) and incidental learning(posttest unannounced), where the former is claimed to outperform the latter.The constructs were integrated into an intervention study with 59 adolescent L1Swedish learners of English in within- and between-subjects designs. Learnersprocessed target items three times when performing tasks that operationalized theconstructs. Three posttests of productive knowledge of target items were administered.Statistical analyses of gain scores show that neither involvement load norspacing had a significant positive impact on learning gains. Significant effectswere found on three measures for intentional learning when compared to incidentallearning. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research and theirimplications for English language teaching (ELT).Cet article rend compte d’une expérience basée en salle de classe et qui évalueles effets de trois concepts pédagogiques en enseignement du vocabulaire (charged’implication, espacement et intentionnalité) sur l’apprentissage d’expressions figéesen anglais consistant d’un verbe et d’un nom. La « charge d’implication » deLaufer et Hulstijn (2001) prédit que plus la charge motivationnelle et cognitived’une tâche est élevée, plus elle favorise la rétention des mots. « L’espacement »fait référence à l’avantage de répartir les occasions d’apprentissage des mots plutôtque de les rassembler. « L’intentionnalité » comprend deux modes de traitementdes mots: l’apprentissage intentionnel (post-test annoncé) et l’apprentissage accidentel(post-test pas annoncé), le premier supposément donnant de meilleursrésultats que le second. Ces concepts ont été intégrés dans une étude d’interventionimpliquant 59 adolescents suédois qui apprenaient l’anglais et suivant un modèle àmesures répétées et un modèle inter-sujets. Les participants ont traité des élémentscibles trois fois en accomplissant des tâches qui opérationnalisaient les concepts.Trois post-test portant sur des connaissances productives des éléments cibles ont eulieu. Des analyses statistiques des notes ont indiqué que ni la charge d’implicationni l’espacement n’avaient eu un impact positif significatif sur les notes. Trois mesures de l’apprentissage intentionnel comparé à l’apprentissage accidentel ont révélé des effets significatifs. Nous discutons des résultats par rapport à la recherche antérieure et en fonction de leurs incidences sur l’enseignement de l’anglais.

Productive and Receptive Collocational Knowledge of Iranian EFL Learners at Different Proficiency Levels

In the present study, an attempt was made to probe into the probable difference between Iranian intermediate and advanced EFL learners' receptive and productive collocational knowledge. To this end, 60 EFL learners studying at Islamic Azad University, Isfahan Branch, including 30 advanced and 30 intermediate learners, were chosen through the Oxford Placement Test (OPT). The participants at each level of proficiency received two tests of collocations, namely receptive collocation test and productive test of collocations. Paired-samples t test showed no statistically significant difference between productive and receptive knowledge of collocations of the advanced EFL learners. However, the mean comparison between the receptive and productive collocation test scores of intermediate EFL learners revealed a significant difference. Pedagogical implications emanating from the obtained results are elaborated in the study.

Effects of Input-based and Output-based Instructions on Iranian EFL Learners’ Productive Knowledge of Collocations

Few studies have investigated the effects of input-based and output-based instructions on collocational knowledge of EFL learners. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effects of these instructional approaches on Iranian EFL learners’ productive knowledge of collocations. To this end, 80 senior high school students from three intact classes at Tali-e High School in Ahvaz, Iran, were selected. Each class was assigned to a control group (n = 28) and two experimental groups including the input group (n = 27) and the output group (n = 25). Twenty collocations were selected as the target collocations. Then, a pretest was administered to all groups. Two days after the last treatment session, an immediate posttest was given to the participants. A delayed posttest was also administered two weeks later. The results of Mixed-ANOVA, one-way ANOVA, and Tukey post hoc tests revealed that both input and output groups outperformed the control group on the immediate and delayed posttests. However, there were no significant differences between the input and output groups on the posttests. The implications and suggestions for future research are also presented.

Productive knowledge of collocations may predict academic literacy

The present study examines the relationship between productive knowledge of collocations and academic literacy among first year students at North-West University. Participants were administered a collocation test, the items of which were selected from Nation’s (2006) word frequency bands, i.e. the 2000-word, 3000-word, 5000-word bands; and the Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000). The scores from the collocation test were compared to those from the Test of Academic Literacy Levels (version administered in 2012). The results of this study indicate that, overall, knowledge of collocations is significantly correlated with academic literacy, which is also observed at each of the frequency bands from which the items were selected. These results support Nizonkiza’s (2014) findings that a significant correlation between mastery of collocations of words from the Academic Word List and academic literacy exists; which is extended here to words from other frequency bands. They also confirm previous findings that productive knowledge of collocations increases alongside overall proficiency (cf. Gitsaki, 1999; Bonk, 2001; Eyckmans et al., 2004; Boers et al., 2006; Nizonkiza, 2011; among others). This study therefore concludes that growth in productive knowledge of collocations may entail growth in academic literacy; suggesting that productive use of collocations is linked to academic literacy to a considerable extent. In light of these findings, teaching strategies aimed to assist first year students meet academic demands posed by higher education and avenues to explore for further research are discussed. Especially, we suggest adopting a productive oriented approach to teaching collocations, which we believe may prove useful.