Tea Production Research Articles

Forsythia suspensa leaf fermented tea extracts attenuated oxidative stress in mice via the Ref-1/HIF-1α signal pathway and modulation of gut microbiota

Forsythia suspensa leaf fermented tea (FSLFT) is made from tender buds of Forsythia suspensa collected in spring. The main active components of FSLFT include forsythiaside, forsythia ester glycoside, rutin, and forsythia flavonoids, which have antibacterial, antioxidant, liver-protective, and immune-regulatory effects. Oxidative stress can trigger excessive apoptosis in intestinal epithelial cells, leading to dysfunction of the small intestinal mucosa and impaired intestinal absorption. This study focused on Kunming mice as research subjects and used hydrogen peroxide as an inducer to investigate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of FSLFT in vivo, as well as its regulatory effects on the intestinal microbiota of mice. The aim of this study was to establish a theoretical foundation for the functional study of Forsythia suspensa leaves and provide specific recommendations for their growth and application. The results showed that H2O2 treatment led to an increase in oxidative levels in mice. FSLFT has been shown to have antioxidant effects via the Redox Factor-1(Ref-1)/ hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α) pathway, reduce inflammation caused by hydrogen peroxide through the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, and protect mouse colons from oxidative stress by repairing gut microbiota imbalance and increasing microbial diversity and abundance. These findings establish a theoretical basis for studying the functional properties of FSLFT.

Machine learning unveils the role of biochar application in enhancing tea yield by mitigating soil acidification in tea plantations.

Biochar, a widely utilized soil amendment in environmental applications, has been employed to enhance tea cultivation. This study utilized three machine learning models to investigate the effects of biochar on tea growth and yield, with the random forest (RF) model demonstrating superior performance (R2=0.8768, Root Mean Square Error=6.1537). Feature importance analysis revealed that biochar characteristics and experimental conditions constitute critical factors exerting an impact on the output, accounting for 39.2% and 38.6%, respectively. Specifically, the Ca content of biochar (weight 0.274), the quantity of biochar applied (weight 0.206), and the calcium (Ca) content of soil (weight 0.120) emerged as the three most significant factors affecting tea yield. In conclusion, the machine learning models developed in this study elucidate the multifactorial impact of biochar application on tea yield, providing theoretical and methodological support for practical biochar application strategies in tea production.

Uncovering characteristic and enantiomeric distribution of volatile components in Huangshan Maofeng and Zhejiang baked green teas.

Huangshan Maofeng (HSMF) is a famous baked green tea from the Anhui Province of China, known for its "clean and fresh" flavor. Zhejiang, another major tea-producing province, focuses on the production of green teas. This study aimed to analyze the characteristic aroma components and specific enantiomeric distribution of significant chiral volatile compounds in HSMF and Zhejiang baked green tea (ZJ-BGT) with respect to their origins, cultivars and grades using stir bar sorptive extraction combined with non-targeted gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and enantiomeric GC-MS approaches. Unique enantiomeric distributions were identified for 2-methylbutanal, γ-nonanolactone, jasmine lactone, α-pinene, cis-linalool oxide (furanoid), and linalool in HSMF and ZJ-BGT. Furthermore, the concentrations of hexanal, cis-3-hexenyl butyrate, geraniol, and the enantiomeric ratio of R-α-terpineol demonstrated a positive correlation with the HSMF grade. Additionally, S-jasmine lactone and R-γ-nonanolactone present in HSMF, along with S-linalool found in ZJ-BGT, significantly contribute to the flavor quality of their respective teas.

Analisis Biaya Produksi dan Penentuan Harga Pokok Produksi dalam Pengembangan Agrowisata Berbasis Pengolahan Limbah Daun Manggis di Desa Bulusari

Bulusari Village has great potential in developing agrotourism based on the utilization of mangosteen leaf waste, which can improve the village economy and overcome environmental waste problems. This study aims to analyze the production costs and cost of herbal tea products from mangosteen leaf waste to support the development of agrotourism in Bulusari Village. Through the full costing method, the production cost per package is Rp 18,500, with a selling price set at Rp. 24,000 per package. The results of the study indicate that this herbal tea product innovation not only produces profitable economic value, but also opens up new business opportunities and creates jobs for local communities. Thus, the utilization of mangosteen leaf waste can support the sustainability of the village economy and increase the attractiveness of nature-based tourism in Bulusari Village.

Effect of Different Cascara Tea Formulas on the Addition of Dayak Onion and Stevia

Formulation in making tea is necessary to produce quality products with a distinctive taste and optimal health benefits. Cascara is a dried tea product produced from coffee skin waste. It has been reported to have potential as a natural antioxidant because it contains secondary metabolite compounds such as polyphenols. Dayak onion bulbs are reported to contain flavonoids that are useful for preventing and alleviating complaints due to degenerative diseases such as hypertension and controlling blood sugar levels. Stevia is a plant known as sugar leaves or non-calorie natural sweeteners whose dried leaves have 30 times the sweetness of sucrose. The purpose of this study was to combine coffee fruit skin (cascara), Dayak onion, and stevia in herbal tea formulations to explore health potential and see the effect of differences in cascara, dayak onion, and stevia tea formulations on pH values, moisture content, and ash content according to the Indonesian National Standard (SNI). This study used a Factorial Completely Randomized Design (CRD). The results of this study indicate that the moisture content of herbal tea bags ranges from 9.05%-11.48%, with certain formulations (C, D, E, and F) meeting SNI standards. The ash content of herbal tea bags ranges from 3.58%-7.35%, reflecting the mineral content, with higher stevia concentrations correlating with increased ash content. The pH value of the brewed herbal tea ranges from 4.34-5.12, indicating that higher concentrations of Dayak onion produce higher pH values while increasing stevia concentrations lower pH. Contribution to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):SDG 3: Good Health and Well-beingSDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and InfrastructureSDG 12: Responsible Consumption and ProductionSDG 15: Life on Land

Interspecific competition between natural enemies of juice-sucking pests in tea gardens

ABSTRACT To rationally utilise and protect the natural enemies of juice-sucking pests in tea gardens, which have been exhibiting an upward trend in China's tea areas, significantly impacting tea production and quality, this study conducted grey correlation analysis, competition coefficient analysis, and competition intensity index analysis on the peak-day populations of juice-sucking pests and their nine primary natural enemies to compare the competitiveness among these natural enemies and identify dominant species for effective juice-sucking pest control. The grey correlation analysis indicated that the three natural enemies most closely related to juice-sucking pests were Misumenops tricuspidatus(X2), Propylea japonica(X8) and Plexippus paykulli(X6). The new multiple range test (MRT) analysis of competition coefficients revealed that the three natural enemies with the highest competition coefficients were P. paykulli(X6), Clubiona reichlini(X4) and Xysticus ephippiatus(X1). Furthermore, according to the new MRT analysis of competition intensity indices, the natural enemies exhibiting the highest competition intensity indices were C. reichlini(X4), P. paykulli(X6) and Oxyopes sertatus(X5). Based on the comprehensive analysis above, among the nine major natural enemies, P. paykulli(X6) and C. reichlini(X4) were tied for the first place in terms of competitiveness, followed by X. ephippiatus (X1). Additionally, Clubiona japonicola(X3) also demonstrated significant competitiveness and was worthy of mention. The stronger the competitiveness, the stronger the predation ability, and thus the stronger the pest control capability. Our study provided a scientific basis for selecting natural enemies of dominant species with strong interspecific competitiveness, so as to facilitate more efficient biological control of juice-sucking pests.

Kombucha fortified with Cascade hops (Humulus lupulus L.): enhanced antioxidative and sensory properties

In recent years, there has been a surge in the production of kombucha—a functional beverage obtained via microbial fermentation of tea. However, fresh, unpasteurized kombucha is sensitive to quality deterioration as a result of, among other factors, oxidation. The addition of hops seems to be promising, due to their antioxidative properties, which may improve the stability of kombucha. However, aiming at retaining the highest antioxidative properties of kombucha, it remains unclear at which stage of the production process hops should be added. The study investigated the effect of hop supplementation during kombucha production on the basic physicochemical, antioxidative, and sensory properties of kombucha. Cascade hops in the concentrations 0.5 and 2 g/L were added at the onset of tea infusion and to the fresh, unpasteurized kombucha. The addition of hops (particularly at the pre-fermentation stage of production) led to a significant decrease in radical formation in the produced kombucha measured by electron spin resonance spectroscopy (ESR), which correlated with the higher DPPH antiradical activity and the elevated bitter α-acid content. From the sensory perspective, the post-fermentation addition of hops to kombucha resulted in a significantly higher rating of the overall quality. This enhancement was directly associated with heightened bitterness, increased presence of fruity and citrusy aromas, and a simultaneous reduction in the intensities of acetic and tea-related attributes. The data presented in this study are relevant for kombucha producers, who want to deliver a sensory-novel product in combination with an improved oxidative stability.Key points• Hop addition in kombucha production improves the antioxidative activity of the beverage.• Hop α-acids display higher antioxidative properties in kombucha than polyphenols.• Oxidative stability of kombucha fortified with hops depends on the timing of hops addition.• Hop addition enriches the taste and aroma attributes of kombucha.

A Seasonal Fresh Tea Yield Estimation Method with Machine Learning Algorithms at Field Scale Integrating UAV RGB and Sentinel-2 Imagery

Traditional methods for estimating tea yield mainly rely on manual sampling surveys and empirical estimation, which are labor-intensive and time-consuming. Accurately estimating fresh tea production in different seasons has become a challenging task. It is possible to estimate the seasonal yield of tea at the field scale by using the spatial resolution of 10 m, 5-day revisit period and rich spectral information of Sentinel-2 imagery. This study integrated Sentinel-2 images and uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV) RGB imagery to develop six regression models at the field scale, which were employed for the estimation of seasonal and annual fresh tea yields of the Yunlong Tea Cooperatives in Yixiang Town, Pu’er City, China. Firstly, we gathered fresh tea production data from 133 farmers in the cooperative over the past five years and obtained UAV RGB and Sentinel-2 imagery. Secondly, 23 spectral features were extracted from Sentinel-2 images. Based on the UAV images, the parcel of each farmer was positioned and three topographic features of slope, aspect, and elevation were extracted. Subsequently, these 26 features were screened using the random forest algorithm and Pearson correlation analysis. Thirdly, we applied six different regression algorithms to establish fresh tea yield models for each season and evaluated their estimation accuracy. The results showed that random forest regression models were the optimal choice for estimating spring and summer yields, with the spring model achieving an R2 value of 0.45, an RMSE of 40.38 kg/acre, and an rRMSE of 40.79%. Similarly, the summer model achieved an R2 value of 0.5, an RMSE of 78.46 kg/acre, and an rRMSE of 39.81%. For autumn and annual yield estimation, voting regression models demonstrated superior performance, with the autumn model achieving an R2 value of 0.42, an RMSE of 70.6 kg/acre, and an rRMSE of 39.77%, and the annual model attained an R2 value of 0.47, an RMSE of 168.7 kg/acre, and an rRMSE of 34.62%. This study provides a promising new method for estimating fresh tea yield in different seasons at the field scale.

Effect of Four Different Initial Drying Temperatures on Biochemical Profile and Volatilome of Black Tea

Background: Black tea processing conditions significantly affect the final taste and flavor profiles, so researchers are now focusing on developing equipment and improving the appropriate processing conditions of major black tea varieties. Methods: Here, we tested the effect of four different initial drying temperatures, i.e., R65 (65 °C), R85 (85 °C), R105 (105 °C), and R125 (125 °C), on the sensory and biochemical profiles and volatilome of the black tea variety “Lishui wild” (LWV). Results: Our results indicate that both 85 and 105 °C are better than 65 and 125 °C for initial drying for 20 min. R105 had the highest sensory evaluation scores due to better shape, aroma, taste, leaf base, thearubigins, theanine, caffeine, and ratio of theaflavins + thearubigins to theaflavins. Both R85 and R105 had higher catechins than R65 and R125. The LWV volatilome consisted of esters (19.89%), terpenoids (18.95%), ketones (11.3%), heterocyclic compounds (9.99%), and alcohols (8.59%). In general, acids, aldehydes, amines, aromatics, ethers, hydrocarbons, phenols, sulfur compounds, and terpenoids accumulated in higher amounts in R85 and R105. The highly accumulated compounds in R105 were associated with green, fruity, sweet, woody, floral, hawthorn, mild, nutty, powdery, rose, and rosy flavors. The main pathways affected are secondary metabolites, sesquiterpenoid and triterpenoid biosynthesis, glycerolipid metabolism, zeatin biosynthesis, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, ABC transport, glutathione metabolism, etc. Therefore, R105 can be used to achieve the optimal taste, flavor, and aroma of LWV. Conclusions: Overall, the presented data can be used by the tea industry for processing black tea with the most optimum volatile substances, catechins, theanine, amino acids, and other compounds.

Comprehensive review of mapping climate change impacts on tea cultivation: bibliometric and content analysis of trends, influences, adaptation strategies, and future directions

Climate change has a profound impact on tea cultivation, posing significant challenges to yield, quality, and sustainability due to stressors such as drought, temperature fluctuations, and elevated CO₂ levels. This study aims to address these challenges by identifying and synthesizing key themes, influential contributions, and effective adaptation strategies for mitigating the impacts of climate change on tea production. A systematic bibliometric and content analysis was conducted on 328 peer-reviewed documents (2004–2023), following the PRISMA methodology. Performance analysis using Bibliometrix examined trends in publication output, leading contributors, and geographical distribution, while science mapping with VOSviewer revealed collaboration networks and thematic clusters. A detailed review of highly cited studies highlighted the primary climate variables affecting tea cultivation and identified innovative adaptation strategies, as well as critical knowledge gaps. The results show significant progress in understanding the physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses of tea plants to climate-induced stressors, including antioxidant mechanisms, secondary metabolite regulation, and genomic adaptations. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, particularly regarding the combined effects of multiple stressors, long-term adaptation strategies, and the socioeconomic implications of climate change. The findings underscore the need for interdisciplinary approaches that integrate molecular, ecological, and socioeconomic research to address these issues. This study provides a solid foundation for guiding future research, fostering innovative adaptation strategies, and informing policy interventions to ensure sustainable tea production in a changing climate.

Effects of Long-Term Organic Substitution on Soil Nitrous Oxide Emissions in a Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) Plantation in China

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a major greenhouse gas (GHG) responsible for global warming. Improper fertilization in agricultural fields, particularly excessive nitrogen (N) application, accelerates soil N2O emissions. Though partial substitution with organic fertilizer has been implemented to mitigate these emissions, the effect on perennial systems, such as tea plantations, remains largely unexplored. Therefore, the present study monitored soil N2O emissions for a year in a tea plantation in South China under the following treatments: no N fertilizer (control, CK), chemical fertilizer alone (CF), replacing 40% of chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer (CF + OF), and organic fertilizer alone (OF). Our results showed that the annual cumulative N2O emissions from the plantation soil ranged from 1.03 to 3.43 kg N2O-N ha−1. The cumulative N2O emissions, the yield-scaled N2O emissions (YSNE), and the N2O-N emission factor (EF) from the soil were the highest under the CF + OF treatment but the lowest under the OF treatment. Further analysis revealed that fertilization, mainly chemical fertilization, increased the soil ammonium (NH4+-N) and nitrate (NO3−-N) levels by 182–387% and 195–258%, respectively, and tea yields by 120–170%. However, tea yield decreased gradually with increasing organic substitution. These results prove that complete organic substitution reduces soil N2O emissions and tea yield and suggest adopting an appropriate substitution rate for optimal effect. Further random forest (RF) modeling identified water-filled pore space (WFPS; 20.27% of total variation), soil temperature (Tsoil; 19.29%), and NH4+-N (18.27%) as the key factors significantly contributing to the changes in soil N2O flux. These findings provide a theoretical foundation for optimizing fertilization regimes for sustainable tea production and soil N2O mitigation.

Accumulation of trace elements in tea under different soil conditions and the biomechanics-related mechanism of their influence on plant antioxidant enzyme activities

China is an important tea-growing country, and top quality tea, specialty tea and other high-quality tea is more and more favored by the tea industry, so that the production demand is rising year by year. The formation of high quality tea requires suitable soil factors, and soil is one of the two key factors affecting the production of high quality tea. The physicochemical properties and nutrient content of different soils can significantly impact the intracellular processes within tea plants. The absorption and transportation of trace elements such as selenium in tea roots are mediated by specific transporter proteins. These proteins operate based on molecular mechanisms and biomechanical forces that drive the movement of ions across cell membranes. In this paper, we utilize GPS technology to design the distribution area of the test tea production area, and adopt the S-type method to collect the soil of tea differential land in different ecological environments, to explore the physicochemical properties, nutrient content, pH value and water management of different soil types. The whole trace elements and effective trace elements in tea were determined through experiments. The antioxidant enzyme activity of tea was measured by TBA and other methods. The results showed that after planting in different soils, the selenium content of autumn tea was 0.08%, 0.04%, 0.04% in loamy soil > sandy soil = clay soil, respectively. The amount of selenium carried out was sandy soil > loamy soil > clay soil, and the amount of selenium carried out increased by 142.37 kg and 94.97 kg after comparing two by two. Compared with the tea leaves with added trace elements, the T-AOC of the tea leaves without added decreased by 18.75%, 14.20%, 28.06%, and 35.14%. These findings highlight the importance of understanding the cellular and molecular processes in tea plants influenced by soil conditions and trace elements for optimizing tea quality and production.

The Dynamic Changes in Volatile Compounds During Wuyi Rock Tea (WRT) Processing: More than a Contribution to Aroma Quality

Wuyi Rock tea (WRT), originating from the northern region of Fujian province, has a good reputation for its distinctive Yan flavor and floral–fruity aroma. The aroma quality, an essential element of the Yan flavor, undergoes various changes during the manufacturing process of WRT. To enhance the understanding of the formation patterns of WRT aroma and its influence on the flavor quality of WRT, we utilized both manufactured WRT (Rougui tea) and primary tea as materials. Utilizing a sensory evaluation, detection of volatile compounds, and multivariate statistical analysis, we identified and characterized the distinctive volatile components present in WRT. The sensory evaluation and radar chart analysis revealed that the primary tea exhibited a strong and lasting aroma, along with a mellow taste and a prominent Yan flavor. Through gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF MS), a total of 251 volatile compounds were identified. The odor activity value (OAV) was calculated to identify key aroma-active compounds in the primary tea. The results indicated that a total of 14 compounds had an OAV greater than 1.0, including (2-nitroethyl) benzene, indole, and geranylacetone. These compounds exhibited floral and fruity aroma attributes. They primarily formed and accumulated during the latter stages of WRT. Using a partial least squares discrimination analysis (PLS-DA) combined with a variable importance in projection (VIP) score greater than 1.0 as a criterion, a total of 89 compounds were identified. Furthermore, out of the selected compounds, 15 types, including geraniol, 1-nonanol, and 1-butyl-2-ethyl-cyclopropene, were found to exclusively exist during the enzymatic manufacturing stages, particularly during the intermediate and later phases of the turn-over process (the last-three-times turn-over treatments), exhibiting predominantly floral and sweet fragrances. In contrast, during the non-enzymatic stages, only four compounds, such as pentanoic acid and phenylmethyl ester, were detected, exhibiting a fruity aroma profile. These volatile compounds significantly influenced the quality attributes of the final tea product, resulting in strong and lasting characteristics, particularly marked by a pronounced floral and fruity aroma. This study revealed how the aroma quality in WRT is developed and pinpointed possible volatile compounds that react to post-harvest treatments, thereby offering valuable insights relating to the intelligent production strategies of WRT.

Theaflavins Are Improved by the Oxidation of Catechins in Tannase Treatment During Black Tea Fermentation

Theaflavins Are Improved by the Oxidation of Catechins in Tannase Treatment During Black Tea Fermentation

Effects of microbial biocontrol agents on tea plantation microecology and tea plant metabolism: a review.

The quality of fresh tea leaves is crucial to the final product, and maintaining microbial stability in tea plantations is essential for optimal plant growth. Unique microbial communities play a critical role in shaping tea flavor and enhancing plant resilience against biotic stressors. Tea production is frequently challenged by pests and diseases, which can compromise both yield and quality. While biotic stress generally has detrimental effects on plants, it also activates defense metabolic pathways, leading to shifts in microbial communities. Microbial biocontrol agents (MBCAs), including entomopathogenic and antagonistic microorganisms, present a promising alternative to synthetic pesticides for mitigating these stresses. In addition to controlling pests and diseases, MBCAs can influence the composition of tea plant microbial communities, potentially enhancing plant health and resilience. However, despite significant advances in laboratory research, the field-level impacts of MBCAs on tea plant microecology remain insufficiently explored. This review provides insights into the interactions among tea plants, insects, and microorganisms, offering strategies to improve pest and disease management in tea plantations.

Optimised determination of arsenic and lead in tea samples using microwave-assisted digestion and ICP-MS: method validation and health risk assessment

ABSTRACT Heavy metal contamination in tea poses significant risks to consumer health, necessitating the development of accurate and efficient analytical methods for routine monitoring. This study aimed to optimise and validate a robust process for the simultaneous determination of arsenic (As) and lead (Pb) in dried tea samples using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) following microwave-assisted digestion. These toxic elements were selected due to their known health risks and their frequent detection in tea. The method was systematically optimised for digestion parameters and validated following EURACHEM guidelines to ensure accuracy and precision. Key validation metrics included linearity (R2 ≥0.9999), limits of quantification (LOQ) of 0.25 µg/kg for As and 1.5 µg/kg for Pb, sufficient for regulatory compliance. The method demonstrated excellent mean recoveries (75%–89%) and relative standard deviations (RSDs) below 15% across all fortification levels. Precision and accuracy were further verified through proficiency testing, yielding acceptable z-scores for both analytes. Application of the validated method to tea samples collected from Egypt revealed arsenic concentrations ranging from 0.018 ± 0.004 to 0.280 ± 0.070 mg/kg and lead concentrations from 0.083 ± 0.021 to 1.630 ± 0.407 mg/kg. Although detection rates were elevated, the calculated target hazard quotient (THQ) values for As and Pb were below the threshold of 1, suggesting no significant non-carcinogenic health risks associated with tea consumption. This study provides a reliable, cost-effective analytical framework for monitoring heavy metal contamination in tea products, supporting consumer safety and public health initiatives.

An Assessment of Nutritional Deficiency Symptoms in the Tea Plant (Camellia sinensis L.) Through Field Survey

The most important factor in both plant development and productivity, which mostly depends on nutrient availability in the soil and environment, is the constituents of soil nutrients. Soil is always losing its nutrients by leaching, surface runoff as well as through harvesting and cultural operations like: pruning. For maintaining the balance of agricultural ecosystem fertilizer application is necessary to improve soil condition and gain better yield. In case of tea industry for maintaining better and uniform production applying fertilizer is a widespread management technique in worldwide. Tea requires a lot of macro and micronutrients for growth because it cannot be grown without the usage of fertilizer and other nutrient supplies. The purpose of this field survey was to ascertain the nutritional condition of tea leaves as well as the signs of nutrient deficiencies in tea plants. In this study, deficiency symptoms of the essential nutrients were found out at different tea estates of Moulvibazar and Sylhet districts as well as photographs were taken. Photographs of the nutrient deficient tea plants were correlated with the established symptoms. The range of total nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and zinc content in the collected tea leaf samples were 2.95- 5.18%, 0.28- 0.49%, 0.56-1.88%, 0.12-0.49%, 0.07-0.08% and 0.002- 0.004%, respectively.

Impact of Organic Materials (Tea Waste and Farm Manure) on Yield, Protein Content, Fiber Fractions, and Mineral Composition of Tea Plants in an Organic System

ABSTRACT This study aimed to investigate the effects of organic materials and fertilizers on tea plant yield and quality in an organic tea garden in Türkiye. The objective was to identify sustainable alternatives to synthetic fertilizers that could enhance tea production while maintaining or improving nutritional quality. A two-year field study (2019–2020) was conducted in an organic tea garden in Pazar, Rize, Türkiye, to assess the impacts of various organic materials on tea plant yield and quality. A Randomized Complete Block Design with split-split plots was employed, with three organic materials (Control, Farm Manure, Tea Waste) as main plots, five organic fertilizers (Control, Organoferm, Neobioplus, Bionur, Orbitosol) as subplots, and three harvest times as sub-sub plots. The study analyzed fresh and dry yield, protein content, cell wall components (Acid Detergent Fiber [ADF] and Neutral Detergent Fiber [NDF] representing indigestible fiber fractions, and Acid Digestible Protein [ADP] indicating protein availability), and macroelements (Phosphorus [P], Potassium [K], Calcium [Ca], and Magnesium [Mg]). Tea waste significantly enhanced protein content, yield, and phosphorus levels, while farm manure increased fresh and dry yields, as well as potassium and magnesium concentrations. Organoferm fertilizer improved most quality parameters except for calcium and magnesium. Results indicated that organic amendments, particularly farm manure, tea waste and Organoferm fertilizer, can be effective in improving tea plant yield and nutritional quality, offering a sustainable alternative to synthetic fertilizers.

The intelligent selenium-enriched tea withering control system

This paper addresses the low level of intelligence in tea processing equipment in Enshi Prefecture by designing an intelligent withering control system based on the STMicroelectronics 32-bit Microcontroller (STM32). This control system can achieve real-time monitoring of the withering environment and automate the control of heating and ventilation dehumidification modules. By integrating IoT technology, relevant users can view the tea production process via mobile devices, enabling intelligent and remote production operations. Application results show that the system operates stably, accurately measures temperature and humidity in the withering environment, and achieves a control precision of % through a fuzzy control algorithm. It effectively meets the needs of tea processing in Enshi Prefecture. The system not only optimizes traditional processing workflows, enhancing processing efficiency and tea quality, but also provides new technological means for tea processing enterprises, contributing to the development and upgrading of the local tea industry.

Digging Deeper: Understanding the Calf Burials Behaviour among Asian Elephants in North Bengal

Abstract This case study, inspired by the work of Kaswan and Roy, provides critical insights into the thanatological behaviour of elephants, specifically in the North Bengal landscape. It serves as an important resource for private sanctuary managers, elephant handlers, and conservationists worldwide, raising awareness of elephants’ intelligence, emotional depth, and strong bonds with their herd members. The study reveals a unique behaviour among elephants in a specific area, where they bury deceased calves in 2-foot-deep irrigation drains within tea gardens. This region, featuring fragmented forests, tea estates, and small towns, serves as a natural corridor for elephants. The calves are buried in a ‘leg-upright’ position, indicative of how the herd uses their trunks and legs to manipulate the bodies. Two calves died from fungal infections, while three faced respiratory failure, yet all were buried similarly. Contusion marks suggest the herd dragged the calves over a distance before burial, highlighting their collective handling of the bodies. This burial behaviour is likely driven by several factors, including the particularly strong mother-calf bond seen in elephants which may motivate the herd to engage in mourning and burial. The unique environmental conditions in North Bengal, combined with the elephants’ complex social and emotional behaviours, create a remarkable example of interspecies empathy and care, offering valuable lessons for global conservation and elephant management efforts. Information © The Authors 2025