Methyl Ester Production Research Articles

Kinetic modeling of papaya seed triglyceride transesterification catalyzed by calcined banana peel ash in methyl ester production

A model defining kinetics of papaya seed triglyceride PST transesterification heterogeneously catalyzed with calcined banana peel ash (CBPA) in papaya seed triglyceride methyl ester PSTME synthesis was established. The model was based on the reverse-basic reaction mechanism RB of transesterification. The transesterification reaction was performed at the optimum conditions of methanol to oil molar ratio 9:1, CBPA catalyst amount 2.5 wt%, stir- speed 600 rpm within a time range of 0–2 h at varying temperatures of 50 °C, 55 °C and 60 °C. The concentration vicissitudes of reactants/products reached its maximum at 1 h and remained constant across the temperature readings. Elevated temperature was noted to favor the reaction. The rate expression based on tri-glyceride to di-glyceride conversion as rate-controlling step in the reverse-basic reaction mechanism was established as the most dependable description of the experimental data. The activation energy and frequency factor were determined to be 61.7 kJ/mol and 9.8E9h−1 respectively. The enthalpy change ∆H, entropy change ∆S, and Gibb’s free energy ∆G of the process were determined as 61.7 kJ/mol, 19.1 kJ/mol K and − 60.75 kJ correspondingly. The estimation capacity of the model was verified by fixing the experimental data which indicated satisfactory relationship.

Using ZnAl–LDH@SiO2 as a catalyst for the electrocatalytic conversion of waste frying oil into biodiesel

In this study, a novel electrocatalytic conversion system via simultaneous esterification and transesterification, based on a ZnAl–layered double hydroxide (LDH)@SiO2, was investigated for fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) production from waste frying oil (WFO). A mechanism is proposed for the (trans)esterification process to generate CH3O− and OH− on the ZnAl–LDH@SiO2 as the semiconductor heterogeneous catalyst. The inclusion of SiO2 enhanced the catalyst's basicity and caused a better exposure of atoms of oxygen atoms on the catalyst's surface which contributed to the formation of methoxides as a nucleophilic attack on the triglyceride's carbonyl. Also, ZnAl–LDH@SiO2 as an electrocatalyst reduces the beginning potential rate and increases the charge carriers transport. The results showed that 98.4% FAME yield was obtained at higher water content from WFO after 90 min of reaction at 25 °C using 2 wt% of the ZnAl–LDH@SiO2 catalyst, and a methanol to WFO (M:WFO) molar ratio of 6:1. ZnAl–LDH@SiO2 was also effective for WFO containing 3.3 wt% of free fatty acid (FFA), and indicated high stability for WFO (trans)esterification after 5 runs. The electrocatalytic conversion system has the potential to advance a new process development for the conversion of feedstock containing high FFA and water to produce the second generation of biodiesel.

Kinetic modeling of bio-based heterogeneously catalyzed lard oil methanolysis in methyl ester production

Kinetic modeling of bio-based heterogeneously catalyzed lard oil methanolysis in methyl ester production

Upgrading catalytic properties of green synthesized TiO2 for green fuel production from apricot seeds oil

The ongoing energy crisis and global warming issues have pushed the research community to search for sustainable energy supplies such as biodiesel (methyl esters). In this regard, inedible oils which are not consumed by humans could be potential sources for methyl esters production. Herein, the methyl esters were produced by trans-esterifying the apricot seeds oil (ASO) employing series of green synthesized (mediated by banana peel extract) TiO2 based NiO-TiO2 heterogeneous nano-catalysts with varying loadings of NiO (5, 10 and 15 by wt%). The as-prepared catalysts were characterized using advanced techniques like FT-IR, XRD, SEM and FE-SEM. These studies established the successful impregnation of NiO with TiO2 NPs. The efficiency of NiO-TiO2 with 10 wt% of NiO loading calcined at 500 °C was superior due to the highest biodiesel yield compared to other nano-catalysts. The parametric study of transesterification reaction to yield methyl esters adapting this catalyst revealed the maximum yield (93.4 %) with MeOH: oil and catalyst loading of 20:1 and 2 wt% correspondingly in 1 h at 55 °C. GC–MS analysis was executed for investigating and confirming the composition of obtained methyl esters at optimized conditions. Furthermore, the heterogeneous catalyst was reusable for five cycles for transesterification of ASO. The kinetic investigations showed that transesterification of ASO was compatible with pseudo-first order model. In addition, fuel characteristics such as calorific and acid value were measured by using titrations and bomb calorimeter respectively and compared with ASTM6751 and EN14214 standards.

Methyl Esters Production from Degummed Soybean Oil Catalyzed by Niobium Phosphate

Methyl Esters Production from Degummed Soybean Oil Catalyzed by Niobium Phosphate

Animal Bone Ash Catalyzed Upgrading of Mango Seed Oil into Biodiesel through Heterogeneous Transesterification

Biodiesel production via catalytic transesterification of non-edible oils derived from plants is one of the priority areas considered by researchers as an approach to reduce the over-dependence on fossil fuels. However, the development of most appropriate catalyst system is still under investigation. The current study therefore investigated the potentials of bone ashes derived from cow, camel and goat as catalytic materials for upgrading mango seed oils into biodiesel under a range of reaction conditions. Irrespective of the bone ash type, the XRF data revealed the presence of CaO, P2O5, SiO2, Al2O3, K2O, Na2O, MgO, TiO2 and Fe2O3. Among the nine oxides, CaO and P2O5 were found to play a competitive role during the upgrading reaction. However, reactions influenced by active basic sites in CaO were very favourable and accounted for the production of high biodiesel yields reaching maximum at ~94.5%. Further studies on properties characterization showed the produced methyl esters to have properties in line with those approved internationally for the designing of B100 and other grades of biodiesel.

Strategy for lipid extraction and transesterification to enhance Chlorella sorokiniana strain BV 12 feedstock utilization

Efficient production and recovery of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) from lipid containing feedstock is the key step of biodiesel production. This enhances the utilization of feedstock and improves the final economics of the process. Currently, direct and indirect transesterification strategies are being employed for biodiesel production from microalgae with few reports of tailoring the process to a specific feedstock. In this study, Chlorella sorokiniana strain BV 12 was grown in modified BG-11 medium and biomass was harvested. This was subjected to different physical, chemical and physico-chemical strategies for increasing the transesterification yield. The transesterified lipid was evaluated for various biodiesel properties like iodine value, saponification value, acid value, peroxide value and cetane number. After harvesting, gravimetric lipid yield of 161.7 mg/g and 4117.5 µg/g of FAME were obtained. Extraction of lipid was dependent on the cell disruption technique as it is accumulated intracellularly as droplets. Sonication resulted in maximum FAME production using either dry (4724.2 µg/g) and wet (4835.8 µg/g) biomass which shows that wet biomass is more suitable for processing. Gravimetric results favour the extraction by sonication showing a 63.22% increase in lipid recovery. Testing of different solvents for extraction showed methanol as most favourable for FAME analysis with acidic catalyst like HCl and H2SO4 giving FAME with better ignition value (∼51, Cetane number).

Kaolinite and Illite Based Clay Supporting Nickel: its Synthesis, Characterization, and Catalytic Optimazion in a Lab-Scale Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Production

The increasing world energy needs are not matched by the limited availability of fossil fuels thus the development of clean and sustainable fuels is the right solution. Biodiesel is one of these fuels and can be produced through transesterification reactions of vegetable oils in the presence of a catalyst. Acidic natural clay can be an option because of its large abundance, especially in the Indonesia and is heterogeneous in the solution it catalyzes. In this study, clay samples were obtained from an area in Bukittinggi City, West Sumatra Province, and then combined by wet impregnation with nickel as a catalyst in the transesterification reaction of used cooking oil to produce fatty acid methyl esters. Based on X-Ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, the presence of nickel ions does not affect the diffraction pattern of clay minerals contained in the soil consisting of kaolinite and illite. Measurements with X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) showed that the silicon-aluminum mole ratio also did not show a significant change where before mixing the value was 2.0 and after that it only decreased about 5 % to 1.9. The pore diameter of the catalyst was 3.03 nm known by Surface Area Analyzer (SAA). Several variations have been carried out to optimize the catalytic performance of the nickel supported clay and the best conditions were obtained when the catalyst concentration was 3 wt %, the methanol-oil mole ratio was 6:1, the reaction temperature was 70 °C and the reaction carried out for 3 hours. Under these conditions, the yield of methyl ester produced was 63 %

Improvement of methyl ester and itaconic acid production utilizing biorefinery approach on Scenedesmus sp.

This study aims to utilize the Scenedesmus sp. to produce methyl ester and itaconic acid as a biorefinery approach. The wet biomass was utilized for direct transesterification using potassium carbonate as catalyst. The reaction parameters such as solvent to algae ratio, water addition, catalyst concentration, temperature, and reaction time parameters were optimized. Under optimized conditions (20 ml/g solvent to algae ratio, 40% water addition, 4% catalyst, 60 °C and 60 min), a yield of 93% methyl ester yield was achieved. The obtained methyl ester showed satisfactory fuel properties. The spent biomass after transesterification was further subjected to hydrolysis using H2SO4 combined with ultrasound. The sugar content in the hydrolysate accounted for 92% sugar recovery which was further used for the itaconic acid production using Aspergillus sp. The itaconic acid production was improved by altering the MgSO4 concentration in the medium. Addition of TCA cycle metabolites further enhanced the itaconic acid production. Under optimized conditions (50 g/l sugar, 5 ml inoculum, 0.4 g/l MgSO4, 4 mM citric acid, 37 °C for 7 days with 120 rpm), a maximum itaconic production yield of 0.0692 g/g of Scenedesmus sp. was achieved when 4 mM citric acid was added to the medium which suggested an important role of TCA cycle to supply intermediates for the synthesis of itaconic acid.

Multifunctional halloysite and hectorite catalysts for effective transformation of biomass to biodiesel

Halloysite surface was modified with tetrabutylammonium iodide, and then the obtained nanomaterial was used as support for ZnO nanoparticles. After characterization, the nanomaterial was used as a catalyst for fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) production. The recyclability of the nanomaterial was also investigated, and the optimization of reaction conditions by the design of experiments approach was performed as well. In addition, the synthesized nanomaterial was tested as a catalyst for FAME production from a series of waste lipids affording biodiesel in moderate to good yields (35–95%), depending on the matrix. To fully exploit the feasibility of clay minerals as catalysts in biodiesel formation, a screening of different clays and clay minerals with different morphologies and compositions, such as sepiolite, palygorskite, bentonite, and hectorite was also performed in the esterification of FFAs (a mixture of 1:1 palmitic and stearic acids). Finally, hectorite, chosen as a model of 2:1 clay minerals, was covalently modified, and tested as a catalyst in the esterification of FFAs.

Optimizing the subcritical water valorization of insect (Hermetia illucens l.) farming waste for biodiesel production

To counter the proliferation of secondary waste streams generated on insect (black soldier fly) farms, the present study integrated green water technology and acid-catalyzed transesterification as a basis to assess further value extraction potentials. By valorizing the waste streams, a process was developed to promote the circular economy paradigm. In this regard, wastes generated from a local insect farm were initially subjected to subcritical water extraction (SWE) for lipid recovery. The SWE process was optimized such that an enhanced lipid yield of 13.31 wt% was obtained at temperature, time, and solid loading conditions of 236.8 °C, 10 min of extraction, and 1 g/ 100 mL respectively. The lipids recovered were then subjected to an acid-catalyzed transesterification reaction for the production of a fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) mixture. A preliminary economic assessment of the process was also undertaken. The results showed that the wastes had the potential to be economically employed in the production of biodiesel that satisfied fuel property standards. In addition, the potential of employing the side streams as an animal feed was also highlighted due to the determined dominance of oligopeptides, which are known for their favorable bioactive properties. The results indicated that insect farming waste is a promising renewable source for high-quality biodiesel and animal feed production through the environmentally friendly biorefinery.

Biodiesel production from non-edible feedstock from a novel ternary mixture of Argemone Mexicana, Azadirachta Indica and Bakayan seeds oil

ABSTRACT As the world transitions away from fossil fuels, there is a growing need to balance energy security with energy demand. Several energy sources are being investigated and tested, primarily for driving automobiles. Biodiesel, a common vegetable oil derivative, is growing in popularity in several countries due to its substantial similarity to conventional diesel. Biodiesel can be promissorily used as a replacement liquid fuel for petrol-based diesel for compression ignition engines. At present, biodiesel production primarily relies on edible vegetable oils as its main source. This research explores the potential of a non-edible blend of Argemone Mexicana, Azadirachta Indica, and Melia Azedarach Linn seeds for biodiesel production. In the study, the raw oil was extracted from a novel ternary mixture of three non-edible oil seeds together. The raw oil was further processed for methyl ester production in two step process as the FFA was achieved more than 6%. Moreover, the biodiesel yield percentage was optimized by adjusting the parameters; catalyst concentration, molar ratio and heating time. The findings show that a 6:1 molar ratio, 60 min heating time and 0.6% by weight catalyst concentration yielded the highest percentage of biodiesel at 93%. The physio-chemical characteristics of the produced biodiesel were evaluated, and the outcomes satisfied the ASTM standards. The novel ternary mixture biodiesel exhibited equivalent chemical properties such as calorific value, viscosity and density as 39 MJ/kg, 7.2 mm2/s and 0.860 g/cm3 respectively. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of using non-edible oil from the seeds together for biodiesel production and the potential of this novel ternary mixture as an alternative to conventional diesel fuel.

Batch and continuous γ-alumina-catalyzed FAME production from soybean oil deodorizer distillate by interesterification

This paper presents data for a batch and continuous fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) production through heterogeneous catalysis interesterification with methyl acetate, using soybean oil deodorizer distillate (SODD) as feedstock, a high-acid by-product of problematical destination, generated during the soybean oil refining process. As a reaction catalyst, γ-alumina with high catalytic activity, acid character, and an interesting specific area was synthesized and used in the processes. The SODD presented a significant FFA content of 35.2 ± 0.4 wt% and low convertibility in esters (48.0 ± 0.9 %) pointing to high impurity content. By statistical design, the parameters optimization (temperature, methyl acetate:SODD mass ratio, and catalyst load) of the batch reactor returned results that indicated the reliability and reproducibility of the proposed model, allowing predicting the system behavior at autogenous pressure, where around 80.0 wt% of ester yield and 5.4 wt% of triacetin (TA) yield was obtained after 2 h. By kinetics analysis, a FAME yield higher of 90 wt% and TA yield of 13.90 wt% were achieved after 4 h. From these results, continuous production of FAME and TA could be evaluated, where the results obtained permitted to affirm that the acid heterogeneous interesterification can be an interesting process to biodiesel synthesis from SODD.

BIODIESEL PRODUCTION: POTENTIAL AND FUTURE TRENDS – A REVIEW

Biodiesel is a potential renewable energy that can reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and increase energy security. Biodiesel has been shown to have lower carbon emissions compared to petroleum diesel, and it can reduce GHG by as much as 86%. Governments around the world have set targets for renewable energy, with a specific focus on the use of biofuels like biodiesel. Biodiesel can be derived from various feedstocks such as animal lipids, vegetable oils, and waste oils. It can be made through the transesterification of triglyceride with ethanol or methanol. This reaction requires strong base catalysts, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, in order to produce methyl esters. The potential of biodiesel has led to advancements in its production, such as the use of enzymatic transesterification, novel feedstocks, and the optimization of production parameters. Additionally, various companies have ventured into biodiesel production with a range of business models and approaches.

Biodiesel Fuel Production from Soybean Oil Using a Microreactor

The synthesis of fatty acid methyl ester from soybean oil was examined. A microreactor was used as a reactor, and the results were compared with those by batch reaction. In a batch reaction experiment, the concentration of by-product glycerol was large when methanol/soybean oil ratio was low, which inhibited the mass transfer between methanol and oil, and as a result, reduced fatty acid methyl ester yield. On the other hand, when the reaction was conducted under an emulsion state using a microreactor, the initial reaction rate was significantly increased, achieving a specific interfacial area about 7 times larger than that of the batch reaction. Furthermore, the decrease in reaction rate was suppressed and the space-time fatty acid methyl ester yield was successfully increased. When the reaction was conducted under a segmented flow state, the initial reaction rate decreased because of the smaller specific interfacial area. However, the mass transfer coefficient increased about 30-fold, and furthermore, the phase separation was completed immediately after the reaction. Finally, the high temperature and high-pressure flow operation was conducted using a microreactor, which enabled an efficient fatty acid methyl ester production from soybean oil at 2 – 3 times higher space-time yield with less amount of catalyst and/or methanol use compared to the conventional batch production method.

Decoupling solid and hydraulic retention times in microalgal biofilm reactors treating primary wastewater: performance and biodiesel potential

AbstractBACKGROUNDMicroalgal biofilm systems are a promising approach for wastewater treatment and for production of biodiesel precursors through simple biomass harvesting. However, the low concentration of nutrients in wastewater limits possible approaches for microalgal growth. The effective decoupling of the solid retention time (SRT) and the hydraulic retention time (HRT) in biofilm reactors as an alternative for increasing microalgae growth and biodiesel performance in low‐strength wastewater has not been investigated. In this study, we tracked how decoupling the SRT and the HRT influences the removal of organics and nutrients, the biomass productivity and the production of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME).RESULTSThree perturbations of the HRT, SRT and liquid level (LL) with regards to the base case condition (HRT 2.6 h; SRT 21 days, LL 5 mm) performance were analyzed. The base case showed the highest TN and TP removal (>50%) outcomes with high pH values (>10). A decrease of HRT and SRT from 2.6 to 1.3 h and 21 to 10 days, respectively, promoted an increment of microalgal productivity ≤5.8 ± 0.7 g m−2 day−1. A short HRT of 1.3 h enhanced the nitrogen removal rate up to 1.2 g N m−2 day−1, which triggered an increase in the FAME productivity and microalgal density on the biofilms without affecting their productivity.CONCLUSIONOur study demonstrated that the strategy of decoupling HRT and SRT allows operation at shorter HRTs, promoting microalgal growth without affecting FAME production in low‐strength municipal wastewater. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

A large conserved family of small-molecule carboxyl methyltransferases identified from microorganisms

Small-molecule carboxyl methyltransferases (CbMTs) constitute a small proportion of the reported methyltransferases, but they have received extensive attention due to their important physiological functions. Most of the small-molecule CbMTs isolated to date originate from plants and are members of the SABATH family. In this study, we identified a type of CbMT (OPCMT) from a group of Mycobacteria, which has a distinct catalytic mechanism from the SABATH methyltransferases. The enzyme contains a large hydrophobic substrate-binding pocket (~400Å3) and utilizes two conserved residues, Thr20 and Try194, to retain the substrate in a favorable orientation for catalytic transmethylation. The OPCMT_like MTs have a broad substrate scope and can accept diverse carboxylic acids enabling efficient production of methyl esters. They are widely (more than 10,000) distributed in microorganisms, including several well-known pathogens, whereas no related genes are found in humans. Invivo experiments implied that the OPCMT_like MTs was indispensable for M. neoaurum, suggesting that these proteins have important physiological functions.

A lectin gene is involved in the defense of Pleurotus ostreatus against the mite predator Tyrophagus putrescentiae.

The storage mite, Tyrophagus putrescentiae, found worldwide in many habitats, is an important pest of edible mushrooms. Excessive chemical spraying for pest control has been linked to environmental pollution, health risks, insecticide resistance development, and food safety. Host resistance can be sustainable and cost-effective and provide effective and economical pest control. Previous studies have reported that the oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus has evolved effective defense mechanisms against T. putrescentiae attack, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here we report that a lectin gene from P. ostreatus mycelia, Polec2, induced fungal resistance to mite grazing. Polec2 belongs to a galectin-like lectin classification, encoding a protein with β-sandwith-fold domain. Overexpression of Polec2 in P. ostreatus led to activation of the reactive oxygen species (ROS)/mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling pathway, salicylic acid (SA), and jasmonate (JA) biosynthesis. The activation resulted in bursts of antioxidant activities of catalases (CAT), peroxidases (POD), superoxide dismutases (SOD), and increased production of SA, JA, jasmonic acid-isoleucine (JA-Ile) and jasmonic acid methyl ester (MeJA), accompanied by reduced T. putrescentiae feeding and suppressed its population. We also provide an overview of the phylogenetic distribution of lectins across 22 fungal genomes. Our findings shed light on the molecular mechanisms of P. ostreatus' defense against the mite predator and will be useful in investigating the molecular basis of fungi-fungivory interactions and gene mining for pest-resistance genes.

Revolutionizing biodiesel production: A breakthrough synthesis and characterization of bismuth ferrite nanocatalysts for transesterification of palm and waste cooking oil

The present work deals with the successful synthesis of heterogeneous bismuth ferrite nanocatalysts (BiFeO3) using kappa-carrageenan polysaccharides to study the efficient transesterification of palm cooking oil for biodiesel production. The optimized size of pristine BiFeO3 obtained was 95.8 nm, at a molar ratio of (Bi: Fe; 1:2) with a 1 % carrageenan biotemplate and calcined at 823 K for 2 h. The nanocatalysts have been producing high thermal stability, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed the rhombohedral crystalline phases. The BiFeO3 nanocatalysts demonstrated outstanding catalytic performance during the transesterification of palm and waste cooking oils. The abovementioned processes with different reaction parameters for the production of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) were investigated in batches. The effects of the catalyst dosage, temperature, time, and molar ratio (oil/methanol) have been conducted. A maximum FAME yield of 98% was achieved using optimized conditions: oil and methanol at a molar ratio of 1:15, and BiFeO3 with a 7 wt% catalyst dosage in 2 h at 353 K. The results indicated high chemical stability of the catalyst after five consecutive cycles with the same catalytic performance and proved to be a suitable catalyst for the production of biodiesel with high reaction rates and low catalyst usage.

Application of ultrasound technology in the intensification of biodiesel production from bitter almond oil (BAO) in the presence of biocompatible heterogeneous catalyst synthesized from camel bone

ABSTRACT Although biofuels have many benefits, but their production costs are high. This challenge has caused researches to use waste materials and apply technologies to lower the cost of producing these fuels. In this study, a biocompatible heterogeneous catalyst created from calcining camel bones is employed to make biodiesel fuel from non-edible bitter almond oil (BAO). Additionally, using ultrasound technology was one way to increase the effectiveness of the biodiesel synthesis process. Additionally, the effects of the independent variables alcohol to oil molar ratio (6:1, 11:1, and 16:1), reaction time (10, 20, and 30 minutes), ultrasonic power (30, 65, and 100%), catalyst loading (4, 8, and 12 oil wt%), and reaction time (10, 20, and 30 minutes) on the production of methyl ester from BAO were examined. Camel bones were calcined at 400, 700, and 1000°C for 2, 3, and 4 hours. Optimum temperature and time conditions for camel bones calcination with maximum methyl ester production of 88% were obtained at 1000°C and 3 hours after measuring the morphology structure of camel bones catalyst using XRD and TGA methods. The maximum biodiesel conversion rate of 92.3% was obtained using the calcined catalyst with a molar ratio of 11:1, a catalyst loading of 8%, an ultrasonic power of 100%, and a reaction time of 20 minutes. Using the response surface methodology, tests and optimization were performed by Design-Expert software. Biodiesel yield and energy consumption were 88.13% and 248.18 kJ in the optimal conditions suggested by the software with the conditions of maximum production and minimum energy consumption with appropriate weighting. According to the results, waste camel bone can be used as a cost-effective biocompatible source with favorable catalytic activity for biodiesel fuel production.