Production Of Lithium-ion Batteries Research Articles

Extrusion-based fabrication of electrodes for high-energy Li-ion batteries

In this work, an effective and facile extrusion-based mixing and coating process for the manufacturing of electrodes for Li-ion batteries is proposed. Following the development of appropriate pastes and basic rheological investigations, promising formulations are dispersed continuously in a twin screw extruder and directly coated on a current collector foil using the example of LiNi0.6Mn0.2Co0.2O2 as cathode material. The impact of the rotational screw speed, residence time and shear stresses are examined by complimentary materials characterization. The electrochemical performance in battery cells, the homogeneity and microstructure of electrodes manufactured by the extrusion process are compared with electrodes fabricated by an established tape-casting process. The extrusion-based fabrication route shows excellent particle dispersion and high coating quality, resulting in excellent electrochemical performance while providing numerous advantages regarding design freedom, material and processing costs as well as facile upscaling and continuous operation potentials. The work shows that the extrusion-based coating process is a highly promising alternative for the efficient production of lithium-ion batteries.

Influence of Lithium Sulfate on the Kinetics of Hydrogen Oxidation in H2so4

During the last few years, development of lithium ion batteries (LIB) offers innovative solutions for energy storage and has major role in the global energy future. Now used for many purposes, the increase in energy demand is driving the development and the production of LIB towards more environmentally friendly methods while also reducing their production costs.Nemaska lithium, a Canadian collaborator in this project, is recognized as a new producer of lithium hydroxide, a key precursor for high capacity Li-ion cathode material production. In a constant improvement ambition, Nemaska Lithium decided to study the opportunity to use an Hydrogen Depolarized Anode (HDA) in order to save energy for the direct electromembrane synthesis of high purity Lithium Hydroxide (LH). This new technology is based on hydrogen oxidation instead of oxygen evolution reaction, (H2(g) -> 2H+ (aq) +2e-; E0=0,00V vs NHE), this configuration allows for the decrease of the voltage of the electrolysis cell.With a structure similar to proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) anode, an HDA is a porous electrode, supplied with hydrogen from its gas diffusion side and in contact with the electrolyte in the catalyst coated side. The reaction itself is taking place in a small part of the electrode called the catalytic layer. It consists of a triple phase point; an ionomer (for the proton’s transport), platinum nanoparticles (used as catalyst) and a conductive carbon (for electron transport). This study is focusing on two aspects that can influence the performance of the catalytic layer: the impact of the electrolyte on the reaction kinetics and its composition on its efficiency. In order to further advance our knowledge of the reaction mechanism occurring at the HDA, a study on the reaction kinetic of hydrogen oxidation on platinum was conducted. Usually studied in sulphuric acid, the reaction is monitored in this case in the presence of lithium sulfate. For this study, a rotating disk electrode (RDE) has been used. The advantage of this hydrodynamic method is to reduce the dependence of the system on mass transport in order to isolate kinetic current. Using the Koutecky-Levich equation combined with RDE measurements, a logarithmic representation of Tafel slopes for different lithium concentrations have been determined. Linking overpotential to current density, the Tafel curves are used to determine the influence of lithium sulfate on the kinetic of hydrogen oxidation. In a first step, the study was performed on platinum disk electrode. With this well-established system, it was possible to conclude a significant decrease in reaction kinetic in the presence of the salt. Subsequently, the same technique is conducted on a vitreous carbon electrode, where a porous catalytic layer close to HDA configuration is deposited. This configuration allows to study the impact of ionomer presence close to Pt nanoparticles that would change interface between platinum surface and lithium salt electrolyte.

Effect of Electrode Fabrication Process on the Crystallinity of PVDF Binder and Electrochemical Performance of Electrode

In lithium ion battery in fabrication of electrode with good mechanical performance, active materials and conductive agent have to be mixed with specific polymer as binder to binding the other components together. As an effective binder, the polymer should meet some requirements for battery performance and production, such as excellent adhesion to current collector, suitable cohesion to active material and conductive agent, good electrochemical stability over a wide voltage window, high lithium ion conductivity, and so on. Because the binder may coat on the surface of active material particles, the binder layer should have high ionic conductivity and lithium ion can pass through the binder. Poly (vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) is the mostly common used binder in lithium ion battery production. The amorphous phase in PVdF is a good matrix for polar molecules, and lithium ions can pass through a thin layer of swollen PVdF[1]. PVDF is a semi-crystalline polymer with a repeating unit of –CH2-CF2-. The spatial arrangement of the CH2 and CF2 groups along the polymer chains can contribute to the unique properties of PVDF from its crystalline phase. But it is seldom researched that the effect of crystalline structure of PVDF on the electrochemical performance in lithium ion battery. In our recent study, we found that the impedance of electrode is dependent on the drying temperature of coated slurry[2]. In this research we investigated the relationship of process conditions with crystalline phases of PVDF binder in the electrode and the dependence of the electrochemical performance of the electrode on the process conditions.[1]. K. Tsunemi , H. Ohno , E. Tsuchida , Electrochimica Acta , 28 (6) , 591 (1983) .[2]. Y. Fu, X. Song, G. Liu, V. Battaglia, 236th ECS Meeting ,353, Oct. 13-17, 2019, Atlanta, GA. Figure 1

Environmental Impacts Assessment of NCM Cathode Material Production of Power Lithium-Ion Batteries

The nickel cobalt manganese ternary (NCM) cathode material is one of the important parts of power lithium battery. The NCM cathode material production process including the Li2CO3 preparation, precursor preparation and synthesis process of cathode materials is resource-and energy- intensive, thus it leads to relatively severe environment pollution. In this article, life cycle assessment of NCM cathode material production using coprecipitation method in China was conducted based on ReCiPe method. The environmental impacts of the main processes were calculated. The main factors and sources causing environmental pressure were identified. The results indicated that the precursor production contributed the most to environmental impacts in the NCM cathode material production. The energy consumption of the precursor production was 612MJ, accounting for 94.6% of the total energy consumption of NCM production. The environmental impacts of the CoSO4 production and NiSO4 production were the main contributors to that of the precursor production. The primary cobalt and nickel resources in China with lower grade and difficult mining led to the high energy consumption of these two kinds of raw materials. Therefore, the development and utilization of the secondary cobalt and nickel metals will be a great potential to reduce environmental impacts of NCM production.

Enabling Aluminum-Silicon Electrodes As Monolithic Anodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries

Based on current trends in lithium-ion battery (LIB) production and forecasts for immense demand of these energy storage devices, it is evident that all cell components will need dramatic improvement in the future. Although anode materials may be considered by some to be a lower priority, compared to cathode materials, the cost of the anode (and Cu foil current collector) comprise nearly 25% of the materials cost of a LIB cell, and consume ~30% of the volume. Among the possible alternative anode materials for LIBs to replace slurry-based graphite electrodes, alloying materials such as Si, Sn, Al and Ge are promising candidates. Despite the attractive advantages of aluminum-based electrodes (such as low cost, good geographic dispersity and high abundancy), capacity fade due to a large volume change associated with the α/β (Al/LiAl) phase transformation during cycling is the key problem. Al alloy or composite electrodes are a promising strategy for improving the reliability of Al-based electrodes. Among the Al-based monolithic anode materials for LIBs, to the best of our knowledge, Al-rich Al-Si alloys or composites have rarely been investigated.The present work highlights a new achievement towards realizing monolithic, free-standing alloy anodes which can significantly reduce both the cost and processing complexity of LIB electrodes. Herein, we propose a novel strategy to enable the use of aluminum-silicon alloys as monolithic anodes for LIBs. Accordingly, the microstructural, morphological, and electrochemical evolution of Al-Si thin-films of various compositions were investigated, with a focus on understanding the process of Al-Si-Li ternary phase formation during lithiation (in the particular case of excess Al). Ex situ microscopy observations, along with comprehensive electrochemical analysis, suggests that remarkable performance can be achieved by controlling the electrochemical condition for the formation of Al-Si-Li ternary phase, such that no LiAl (β phase) forms during lithiation. In other words, Al-Si-Li ternary phase is cycled within a soft aluminum matrix, thereby avoiding the degradation associated with the de-/lithiation of the β phase [1].[1] M. H. Tahmasebi, D. Kramer, R. Mönig, and S. T. Boles, “Insights into Phase Transformations and Degradation Mechanisms in Aluminum Anodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries,” J. Electrochem. Soc., vol. 166, no. 3, pp. A5001–A5007, 2019.

Lamination of Separators to Electrodes using Electrospinning.

This study shows the feasibility of the Electrospinning method as a process step for advanced and fast production Li ion cells. Lamination is a key technology for Lithium-ion battery production. It bares different advantages, such as a fast production line speed by fixing the separator to the electrodes. Unfortunately, this technology is inapplicable for separator and electrode formulations not based on thermoplastic binders. Using Electrospinning, this disadvantage can be overcome. In our study, beaded PVDF polymer nanofibres were spun onto a fibre-reinforced, inorganic-filled separator. This modified separator was then laminated onto a NMC111-cathode using a temperature profile of 110/110/120°C within the laminator. After Lamination, the separator was pulled-off again and placed in a SEM to see the adhesive behaviour of the applied polymer. The information gathered with SEM clearly shows a successful lamination of the separator to the electrode.

Application of Thin Lithium Foil for Direct Contact Prelithiation of Anodes within Lithium-Ion Battery Production

The rapid advancement and complex requirements of the automotive and energy storage industries require lithium-ion batteries with improved energy density and cycle life. The addition of lithium during lithium-ion battery production, known as prelithiation, has been shown to significantly improve these two performance indicators.This paper addresses the challenges of understanding the novel technology of prelithiation and its integration into industrial battery cell production. Different prelithiation processes are analyzed and evaluated. The requirements for a series-capable process are derived and result in a suitable process design for the prelithiation of anodes within the lithium-ion battery production.

Multi-Criteria Optimization in the Production of Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion-batteries (LIBs) play a key role in determining the environmental impacts of future mobility technologies. In particular, the production of LIBs has a strong environmental impact as it is characterized by high scrap rates. In addition to existing expert-based approaches for the identification of quality drivers in production, a trend towards data-driven methods is discernible. Nevertheless, most approaches show shortcomings in the involvement of multi-criteria optimization. Therefore, this paper uses desirability functions to jointly optimize several quality parameters. Validation was conducted based on the data of an assembly line for prismatic LIBs.

Tracking and Tracing for Data Mining Application in the Lithium-ion Battery Production

The production of Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) cells is characterized by the interlinking of different production processes with a manifold of intermediate products. To be able to ensure high quality and enable a traceability of different production and product characteristics (e.g. energy consumption, material), a tracking and tracing concept is required. In this paper, a practical tracking and tracing concept throughout the production of LIB cells, enabling inline data-driven applications, is introduced. As a part of this concept an intelligent tracking and tracing platform is shown, which allows the generation of a pre-clustered data sets to facilitate future data-driven applications.

Design and Evaluation of a Material-adapted Handling System for All-Solid-State Lithium-Ion Battery Production

All-solid-state lithium-ion battery cells will consist of mechanically and chemically sensitive lithium metal anodes and solid-state electrolytes. In processing these components, mechanical damage to the active surface, contact with a humid atmosphere and potential particle contamination must be avoided as these have severe impact on cell performance. These requirements pose major challenges to handling in cell assembly, which is why a material-adapted handling system is developed. The handling system is capable of gripping and positioning the electrodes in conditioned atmosphere without mechanical damage. These system capabilities are evaluated in an automated stacking process for cell assembly of all-solid-state batteries.

Integration of Traceability Systems in Battery Production

Along the value chain of lithium-ion battery production, there are several process-related changes in the batch structure which are associated with technical challenges for cell-specific traceability. A holistic approach is needed to eliminate the information gaps between the processes and to ensure the traceability of components and process steps up to the finished product. Thus, a solution morphology for the integration of traceability concepts with focus on identification technologies in battery production was developed. This paper presents the developed morphology and its implementation examples. The presented research is carried out together with VARTA in the German research project DigiBattPro 4.0.

Decentralized Planning of Lithium-Ion Battery Production and Recycling

Recycling of lithium-ion batteries enables the recovery of scarce raw materials with lower economic, ecological, and social impacts compared to the primary production. However, the full potential of the recycling can only be reached through cooperation between forward and reverse supply chain. Due to the autonomy of the different companies, the decision-making process in such cooperation is decentralized. In practice, this leads to inefficiencies. Therefore, this contribution aims develop models for the decentralized planning of production and recycling, which are suitable for the application of lithium-ion batteries, and use them to analyze inefficiencies based on a case study.

A NEW APPROACH TO THE USE OF TIN OXIDE FILMS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

In this paper, the technologies of obtaining active elements for lithium-ion batteries based on sputtering of a film of graphite and applying a layer of tin oxide on it are considered. The result obtained, when using a SnO2 film, shows that the parameters of the irreversible capacitance can exceed the values of the return capacitance obtained simply on puregraphite (300-350 mAh / g). This shows the prospect of creating an active anode with a tin graphite oxide structure. Thedirections of optimization of technological processes of obtaining films, the importance of correct selection of thicknessratios, as well as the possibility of transition to the deposition of tin oxide on the carbon structure are highlighted in thework.In contrast to conventional technology, we have been producing anode system of electrode lithium-ion battery using vacuum sputtering on copper foil, which method of high-frequency magnetron deposition applied a layer of graphite and tin, meeting a number of technological requirements.The graphite tin oxide obtained by us has an extremely large variation of values from 380 mAh / g to 690 mAh / g. This is probably due to the raw technology of producing tin graphite by oxidation, as a result of multiphase inclusions of tin oxide. The ambiguity of the graphite structure depending on the film thickness also affects the result.From the presented results, it follows that intensive search for alternative carbon materials for the anode of lithium-ion battery is underway. Although none of the studied materials can compete with carbon at present, it is hoped that composites and nanocomposites of carbon and non-carbon materials will find application in the production of LIA in thenear future.On the basis of the obtained results the possibility of improvement of technical solutions and introduction of new technological processes in the production of lithium-ion batteries is shown, as well as possible directions of improvement of their operational characteristics are analyzed.

Recoverability Analysis of Critical Materials from Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Batteries through a Dynamic Fleet-Based Approach for Japan

This study aims to propose a model to forecast the volume of critical materials that can be recovered from lithium-ion batteries (LiB) through the recycling of end of life electric vehicles (EV). To achieve an environmentally sustainable society, the wide-scale adoption of EV seems to be necessary. Here, the dependency of the vehicle on its batteries has an essential role. The efficient recycling of LiB to minimize its raw material supply risk but also the economic impact of its production process is going to be essential. Initially, this study forecasted the vehicle fleet, sales, and end of life vehicles based on system dynamics modeling considering data of scrapping rates of vehicles by year of life. Then, the volumes of the critical materials supplied for LiB production and recovered from recycling were identified, considering variations in the size/type of batteries. Finally, current limitations to achieve closed-loop production in Japan were identified. The results indicate that the amount of scrapped electric vehicle batteries (EVB) will increase by 55 times from 2018 to 2050, and that 34% of lithium (Li), 50% of cobalt (Co), 28% of nickel (Ni), and 52% of manganese (Mn) required for the production of new LiB could be supplied by recovered EVB in 2035.

A novel and efficient ammonia leaching method for recycling waste lithium ion batteries

Effective recycling waste lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are of great economic and environmental benefits. This study proposes a novel and efficient ammonia leaching method for recovering Co and Li from waste LIBs. This method yields a Co and Li leaching rate of 91.16% and 97.57%, respectively, under the optimal conditions (NH3·H2O 120 g/L, NH4HCO3 75 g/L, n (Na2SO3): n (Co) = 2:1, 353 K, 240 min). Leaching kinetics also show that the speed-limiting step in this process is the interfacial chemical reaction, and the activation energy of Co and Li is 58.45 kJ mol−1 and 50.05 kJ mol−1, respectively. Moreover, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersion spectrum (EDS), and x-ray diffraction (XRD) results indicate that the morphology of waste LIB powder are irregular granular and lamellar. Under the optimal condition, however, the leaching residues are scattered particles at a smaller size and the as formed MnCO3 particles are smooth with a uniform cubic structure. Besides, MnCO3 and graphite in the leaching residues can be separated and recovered. After that MnCO3 was further calcined to Mn3O4, a precursor for the production of new LIBs. Hence, a new and effective way for spent LIBs circular recycling is put forward, providing another choice for spent LIBs recycling industry.

From the Perspective of Battery Production: Energy–Environment–Economy (3E) Analysis of Lithium-Ion Batteries in China

With the wide use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), battery production has caused many problems, such as energy consumption and pollutant emissions. Although the life-cycle impacts of LIBs have been analyzed worldwide, the production phase has not been separately studied yet, especially in China. Therefore, this research focuses on the impacts of battery production and builds an energy–environment–economy (3E) evaluation system. Two battery factories in China were selected for an applied research. Case 1 annually produces 0.22 GWh lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries, while case 2 produces 0.024 GWh lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NCM) batteries. The results demonstrate that electricity consumption per GWh LIBs production is 5.24 × 104 and 4.13 × 104 kWh for case 1 and 2, respectively. Major water pollutant emissions come from employees’ lives, and domestic waste accounts for 82%–83% of the total waste. Material costs per GWh NCM battery are 2.77 × 105 yuan, which is more expensive than the LFP battery, whose cathode material is relatively cheaper. Moreover, the cradle-to-gate carbon footprints (CFs) of the GWh LIBs are 41392.17 and 32254.57 kg CO2eq. The lithium compounds are major contributors to carbon emission for two LIBs. Some measures such as cleaner production, scale expansion and increase of environmental protection investment can effectively promote the development of a 3E system for LIB factories.

Influence of surface characteristics on the penetration rate of electrolytes into model cells for lithium ion batteries

Filling of cells with liquid electrolytes is the time-determining step in the production of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The influencing factors are not completely understood and need further research. The adhesion of the solid components, i.e. anode, cathode and separators, to the electrolyte and the respective interfaces play an important role. In this study, the penetration of liquid electrolytes is monitored by a combination of tensiometry and chronoamperometry. A setup including all battery components is proposed as model for battery cells. Diethyl carbonate is employed as model for the electrolyte. The penetration rates of the liquid into a stepwise extended model setup (separator; anode; cathode; separator/anode; separator/cathode; and anode/separator/cathode) in confined geometry between glass plates are determined with reproducible results. A modified Washburn equation combining surface tensions of liquid and solids forming the interface, and complex geometries of separators and electrodes is used to develop the penetration model. Comparative measurements in a glove box yield comparable results with the real electrolyte solution. The penetration of the model electrolyte into ceramic-coated separators is significantly faster than into polyolefin separators due to higher surface roughness and higher polarity of ceramic-coated separators. The wetting times obtained by chronoamperometric measurements correlate with the tensiometric penetration rates. The higher the tensiometric penetration rate, the lower is the chronoamperometric wetting time. The results of the study contribute to a deeper understanding of the interactions between electrolyte and solid components in LIBs and provide a new method to pre-evaluate battery components.

A Critical Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes from a Circular Economy Perspective

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are currently one of the most important electrochemical energy storage devices, powering electronic mobile devices and electric vehicles alike. However, there is a remarkable difference between their rate of production and rate of recycling. At the end of their lifecycle, only a limited number of LIBs undergo any recycling treatment, with the majority go to landfills or being hoarded in households. Further losses of LIB components occur because the the state-of-the-art LIB recycling processes are limited to components with high economic value, e.g., Co, Cu, Fe, and Al. With the increasing popularity of concepts such as “circular economy” (CE), new LIB recycling systems have been proposed that target a wider spectrum of compounds, thus reducing the environmental impact associated with LIB production. This review work presents a discussion of the current practices and some of the most promising emerging technologies for recycling LIBs. While other authoritative reviews have focused on the description of recycling processes, the aim of the present was is to offer an analysis of recycling technologies from a CE perspective. Consequently, the discussion is based on the ability of each technology to recover every component in LIBs. The gathered data depicted a direct relationship between process complexity and the variety and usability of the recovered fractions. Indeed, only processes employing a combination of mechanical processing, and hydro- and pyrometallurgical steps seemed able to obtain materials suitable for LIB (re)manufacture. On the other hand, processes relying on pyrometallurgical steps are robust, but only capable of recovering metallic components.

Selective liberation in dry milled spent lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have an established role in the consumer electronics markets with minimum risk of replacement from any other contender in the near future. The recent momentum towards electric vehicles and the renewable energy storage market is creating an increased demand for LIBs. The large amount of hazardous waste generated from the disposal of LIBs is driving research into a sustainable approach for LIB treatment and recovery. The positive electrode active materials being the main targeted component as it is the greatest cost contributor to LIBs production. During the production of the positive electrode, a powder of active material typically Lithium Cobalt Oxide is applied to aluminium foil and held together using a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder.The recovery of positive electrode active material involves physical and chemical treatment. Where effective and efficient physical treatment would reduce the cost incurred for the subsequent chemical treatment. Mechanical treatment is an integral part of liberating and concentrating positive electrode active material. The positive electrode active materials have been reported are being concentrated in the finer size region. However, the cut point at which the positive electrode active material being concentrated is substantially greater than the size of the positive electrode active material particle size as found in spent LIBs.This paper studies the characteristics of milled spent LIBs concerning particle size. The results suggest that a cut point of 850 μm gives the best composition of the positive electrode active materials recovery that minimises the involvement of copper and aluminium. However, most of the active materials are still held together by the PVDF binder that creates a substantially higher cut point proposed that the actual size of the positive electrode active material contained within spent LIBs. The interaction of copper and aluminium current collector based on size also further discussed in this paper. A comparison between selective liberation in the new and spent LIBs has been made to assess the difference in mechanical properties that contribute to its overall liberation efficiency.

Environmental Life Cycle Modelling of the Production and Use of Lithium-Ion Batteries Utilising Novel Electrode Chemistries in China

The electrification of transport systems is essential for improved city air quality and reduced noise, may also contribute to enhanced energy security and decreased greenhouse gas emissions. The key enabler of the large-scale uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) are improved lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), offering higher mass specific energies, volumetric energy densities, potential differences and energy efficiencies. Most LIBs used in automotive applications combine nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM) oxide cathodes with graphite (Gr) anodes intercalating lithium ions from organic electrolyte solutions of lithium salts. Two widely reported modifications include increasing the nickel content in cathodes and introducing silicon-graphite (SiGr) composite anodes, enabling increased energy storage capacities. Technological developments in EVs and LIBs have triggered a growing interest in using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to quantify the environmental burdens of electrified mobility (Ellingsen et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2016). Figure 1 compares the global warming potential (GWP) (kg CO2-eq. (battery kW h)- 1) of battery manufacturing at different locations, for reports that allowed the production footprint to be distinguished. The indication that despite the higher coal intensity in its electricity mix, China’s LIB manufacturing has a lower GWP production footprint than other regions is counter-intuitive and raises the need for more detailed analysis. An important additional aim of this work is to consider whether the high environmental burdens of producing LIBs can be counter-balanced by extended EV use periods and the parameters that affect these. Since nickel-rich cathodes and silicon-based anodes are considered the most promising modifications for next-generation LIBs in the near-term, their combined environmental performance is studied. This paper reports on the development of a detailed unit process-based Life Cycle Inventory model, built to assess the production of current and future NCM batteries in China. The definition of the studied product system and LCI model is followed by the introduction of four different battery production scenarios, which were developed to assess the impacts of producing batteries in China, study the introduction of silicon in anodes and examine the effects of two novel cathode chemistries with increased nickel content (NCM622, NCM811). A detailed presentation of the production phase impacts is provided, based on the ReCiPe 1.08 Midpoint characterisation method. The production phase analysis is complemented by the development of a gate-to-gate model, assessing the environmental impact of using a LIB in a passenger vehicle in China. The results indicate that the GWP of producing a LIB in China is 250 kg CO2-eq (battery kW h)-1, which is 40% higher than previously estimated (Ellingsen et al., 2014) and significantly higher than earlier reported values for China (Hao et al., 2017; Yu et al., 2018). The mismatch with the latter two studies is due to the fundamentally different assumptions made when modelling the production phase. This work provides the means to make sensible comparisons, using the same model and assumptions, and accurately benchmark the performance of different scenarios. It is shown that copper production for anode current collectors makes the most important contribution towards all human toxicity and ecotoxicity categories, with the next most important contribution coming from nickel sulfate production for mixed metal oxide cathodes. Furthermore, the manufacturing of next-generation LIBs is estimated to have a slightly increased impact intensity on a per battery pack basis, with the increased nominal energy capacity effectively reducing the impacts on a per kW h basis. The use of LIBs in China primarily affects the GWP, as a result of the high coal intensity of the local electricity mix. References Amarakoon, S., Smith, J., Segal, B., 2013. Application of life-cycle assessment to nanoscale technology: Lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles. No. EPA 744-R-12-001. Ellingsen, L.A.W., Majeau-Bettez, G., Singh, B., Srivastava, A.K., Valøen, L.O., Strømman, A.H., 2014. Life Cycle Assessment of a Lithium-Ion Battery Vehicle Pack. J. Ind. Ecol. 18, 113–124. Hao, H., Mu, Z., Jiang, S., Liu, Z., Zhao, F., 2017. GHG Emissions from the production of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles in China. Sustain. 9. Kim, H.C., Wallington, T.J., Arsenault, R., Bae, C., Ahn, S., Lee, J., 2016. Cradle-to-Gate Emissions from a Commercial Electric Vehicle Li-Ion Battery: A Comparative Analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50, 7715–7722. Majeau-Bettez, G., Hawkins, T.R., StrØmman, A.H., 2011. Life cycle environmental assessment of lithium-ion and nickel metal hydride batteries for plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 4548–4554. Yu, A., Wei, Y., Chen, W., Peng, N., Peng, L., 2018. Life cycle environmental impacts and carbon emissions: A case study of electric and gasoline vehicles in China. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 65, 409–420. Figure 1