Forage Grass Production Research Articles

Azospirillum inoculation of 'Marandu' palisade grass seeds: effects on forage production and nutritional status

Plant-growth-promoting bacteria can be used for sustainable forage grass production while increasing nutrition and biomass. Most of the soils under pasture in the tropics have a degradation level that impairs the forage yield potential, especially because of mismanagement and lack of fertilization. The objective of this work was to evaluate the seed inoculation effects of Azospirillum brasilense on the shoot and root dry mass production and nutritional status of Urochloa brizantha cv. ‘Marandu’ under field conditions for two years in a low-fertility soil. The experimental design was a randomized block design with four replications, arranged in a 2 × 3 factorial scheme, comprised of two doses of A. brasilense (0 and 200 mL ha-1) in combination with three doses of N (0, 25 and 50 kg ha-1). Seed inoculation increased shoot dry mass by 13% in the first year and by 6% in the second year, whereas N application increased dry mass by 27% and 35% in the first and second year, respectively. The concentration of nutrients in the shoots did not change due to the inoculation, but N fertilization affected P, Mg, Fe, Mn, and Zn in the first year and N, P and Cu in the second year. Root dry mass increased 36% with fertilization of 25 kg N ha-1 plus inoculation in relation to the other treatments in the first year. In the second year, the inoculation of A. brasilense increased by 17%. Therefore, seed inoculation of Urochloa brizantha cv. ‘Marandu’ with Azospirillum brasilense increased root and shoot dry mass production in some cuts without influencing tiller numbers. Nitrogen fertilization altered N, Mg, P, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu concentrations in shoot dry mass.

Productivity and Participatory Evaluation of Forage Legumes and Grasses in Pour Soils of Ngweshe Kingdom, DRC

Livestock production decreases in DRC during the three last decades. Malnutrition becomes a big challenge especially in animal proteins supply. To improve animal production by the best feeding in rural environment of Sud-Kivu, International Institute of Tr...

Effect of sowing type and irrigation method on productivity of legume-bluegrass mixtures under multiple cutting

Research objective was to study influence of various irrigation methods and sowing types on productivity of legume-bluegrass mixtures under multiple cutting. Effect of irrigation methods on productivity of different perennial forage grasses grown in light brown soils of Northern Caspian region was studied for the first time. The experiment had two factors - forage grass mixtures ( Agropyron pectiniforme , Trifolium pratense , Phleum pratense , Festuca pratensis ; 25 : 25 : 25 : 25) and various methods of irrigation. Records and observations were made according to the practical standards of B.A. Dospekhov, I.N. Beydeman and the Study guide on mobilization of vegetable resources and introduction of arid fodder plants of Williams Fodder Research Institute. The two-year research resulted in the following conclusions: widespread sowing turned out to be far more effective compared to drilling and was 40.9 t/ha higher; grass yields under flooding were the lowest in all sowing variants and differed insignificantly - 55.6 t/ha in drilling and 55.2 t/ha in widespread sowing.

Índices de nutrição nitrogenada como estratégia de fertilização em pastagens de azevém anual

A principal fonte de alimentação dos ruminantes no Sul do Brasil é proveniente de sistemas pastoris e o azevém anual (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) tem sido utilizado como uma das principais forrageiras para pastoreio no período hibernal. O nitrogênio (N) é o principal nutriente para a manutenção da produtividade e persistência das gramíneas forrageiras, no entanto, este se encontra em baixas concentrações no solo, sendo necessário adicioná-lo na forma de fertilizante químico. Para melhor uso da fertilização, buscam-se ferramentas simples e eficientes para determinar o status nitrogenado da pastagem. O objetivo do trabalho foi determinar o índice de nutrição nitrogenada (INN) do azevém, para validar uma metodologia mais simplificada e eficiente para seu diagnóstico. Os tratamentos foram cinco doses de N (0, 25, 50, 100, 200 kg ha-1) e duas formas de aplicação do fertilizante nitrogenado (única e parcelada). As parcelas com azevém anual submetidas à adubação nitrogenada fracionada apresentaram INN abaixo de um, sugerindo limitação do nutriente no primeiro corte, exceto na dose de 200 kg ha-1 onde os resultados de INN obtidos foram próximos a um, indicando adequado fornecimento de nitrogênio às plantas. Os resultados de INN indicaram que doses de 100 kg/ha-1 de N devem ser aplicadas de forma única em pastagem de azevém anual, para a planta suprir suas necessidades de N no início do ciclo. Houve relação linear entre a concentração de N na última folha completamente expandida e o INN, indicando grande potencial no uso desse método para determinar o status nitrogenado da cultura.

Yield of maize grain and tropical grass species under intercropping management system using nicosulfuron herbicide in off-season cultivation

This research aimed to evaluate the maize grain yield and forage of grass species under intercropping system using nicosulfuron herbicide. In order to assess the parameters related to maize, a randomized block design was defined. The treatments were arranged in a (5 × 2+ 1) × 2 factorial design with four repetitions resulting in 11 treatments, where maize was cultivated under intercropping condition with different forage species (5) (Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu, Piatã, Xaraés, Brachiaria ruziziensis and Panicum maximum cv. Mombaça) and maize monoculture (1) as control treatment, with and without nicosulfuron herbicide application (2) in two growing seasons (2014 and 2015). The off-season intercropping of maize with tropical forage grasses with and without herbicide suppression decreased maize grain yield. The suppression with nicosulfuron herbicide decreased the dry matter production of forage grasses. Intercropping of P. maximum cv. Mombaça with maize showed higher decrease in maize grain yield. On the other hand, it showed higher forage grasses production for livestock feeding. B. brizantha cv. Piatã was the forage which less affected maize grain yield under intercropping, even with absence of nicosulfuron suppression. Off-season maize under intercropping with tropical forages can be used to recover degraded pastures; increasing forage dry matter production for livestock, remaining the soil covered with straws with possibility of no-till seeding for the next cultivation.

Водный режим видов семейства Poaceae в условиях засухи

Abstract. The purpose of the research is to consider the patterns of water regime of plants in dry conditions, depending on changes in environmental conditions and plant physiology. The objectives of the research included: identifying abilities of Poaceae family herbs (Festuca pratensis, Bromus inermis L., Agropyron cristatum L., Agropyrum Gaertn.) introduced into crops on the vegetation sites of the lysimetric complex of the Federal Science Center of Agroecology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Volgograd) to sustainability in adverse environmental conditions. Scientific novelty and practical significance. The study contributes to the solution of issues of effective prediction of the productivity of forage grasses, since water-regime patterns of growth and development of vegetation must be taken into account when developing optimal growing methods. Methods. The determination of the water-holding capacity of herbs was carried out according to the Arlanda method and is based on taking into account the water loss by plants. The intensity of transpiration was determined by the method of fast weighing the selected sheet of L. А. Ivanov. A description of the mechanism of water retention by plants with an increase in drought is given. Results. As a result, it has been established that perennial grasses of the family Poaceae have a high potential for resistance to soil and atmospheric drought. The largest water retention capacity is: Bromus inermis L. (87.8%), Agropyrum Gaertn. (87.1 %) and Agropyron cristatum L. (87.0 %). The ability to change water retention capacity can be viewed not only as an adaptive function in changing environmental conditions, but also as a dynamic process that characterizes the natural course of the metabolism of cells and tissues during ontogenesis. Indicators of transpiration intensity in species of the Poaceae family usually reach a maximum up to high midday temperatures. The highest rates were found in Bromus inermis L. and Agropyrum Gaertn., for which in the morning they reached 1.41–1.42 g/dm2-h.

Biochar amendment improves degraded pasturelands in Brazil: environmental and cost-benefit analysis

Most deforested lands in Brazil are occupied by low-productivity cattle ranching. Brazil is the second biggest meat producer worldwide and is projected to increase its agricultural output more than any other country. Biochar has been shown to improve soil properties and agricultural productivity when added to degraded soils, but these effects are context-dependent. The impact of biochar, fertilizer and inoculant on the productivity of forage grasses in Brazil (Brachiaria spp. and Panicum spp.) was investigated from environmental and socio-economic perspectives. We showed a 27% average increase in Brachiaria production over two years but no significant effects of amendment on Panicum yield. Biochar addition also increased the contents of macronutrients, soil pH and CEC. Each hectare amended with biochar saved 91 tonnes of CO2eq through land sparing effect, 13 tonnes of CO2eq sequestered in the soil, equating to U$455 in carbon payments. The costs of biochar production for smallholder farmers, mostly because of labour cost, outweighed the potential benefits of its use. Biochar is 617% more expensive than common fertilizers. Biochar could improve productivity of degraded pasturelands in Brazil if investments in efficient biochar production techniques are used and biochar is subsidized by low emission incentive schemes.

Nitrogen input strategies in pastures: mineral fertilizer, bacterial inoculant and consortium with forage peanuts

Brazil is a prominent country in the production of beef cattle, where pastures are the basis for ruminant feed, because it is the most economical and practical form of food supply. Nitrogen is the main nutrient for maintaining and increasing the productivity of forage grasses, but its application is one of the most costly and greenhouse gas emitting practices for the system. The introduction of this element into the soil-plant-animal complex can be directly, with mineral fertilizers and with other alternatives, for example, through symbiosis of plants with atmospheric nitrogen fixing bacteria and plant growth promoting bacteria. Owing to future climate changes and increasing food demand, plant and animal production systems need to be increasingly competitive, responsible and efficient. Therefore, the objective of this study was to discuss nitrogen supply strategies in pastures: nitrogen fertilization, inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense and consortium with forage peanuts.

Produktivnost i kvaliteta krmnih trava u jugozapadnom dijelu Panonske nizine

The aim of the research was to compare the productivity and quality of several forage grasses in the climate conditions of south-eastern Europe. The research was conducted during 2012 and 2013, in the south-western part of the Pannonian basin (vicinity of Osijek, Croatia). The experiment included 5 grass species: Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum), cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata), hybrid ryegrass (Lolium x boucheanum), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and timothy (Phleum pratense) cut three times per year, i.e. 6 cuttings in total for two years. The results have shown that there were significant statistical differences for all investigated traits between the species, years and their interaction at the P˂0.05 levels. In average, the highest dry matter yield was achieved during the first year of using (10.4 and 9.1 t*ha-1). In average two years of using, the highest yields of dry matter had Italian ryegrass and cocksfoot. Quality results showed that the cocksfoot was the least digestible because it contained over 700 g*kg-1 of NDF and 450 g*kg-1 of ADF, unlike the perennial ryegrass which had 559 and 327 g*kg-1 of NDF and ADF. The final results showed the productivity per hectare where the most energy-producing species of Italian ryegrass with the possible production of 19,739 liters of milk with 4% milk fat. On the base protein productivity, the most prominent was the cocksfoot which could produce 11,878 liters of milk from 713 kg proteins in one year. The results show that none of the tested grasses had a balanced relationship between protein and energy.

Sources and dosages of Nitrogen applied with urea coated with polymers in Marandu Palisade Grass

Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients for the production of forage grasses, and the most expensive one. The scope of this research was to evaluate the application of four sources of urea (conventional and coated with polymers) under different dosages, in mass production and nitrogencontent and absorption from two cuts of Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu. The experiment was conducted at a greenhouse in a randomized block design. The fertilizers used were conventional urea, urea covered with a polymer layer, urea covered with sulfur and urea covered with a boron and copper compound. The dosages used were 30, 60, 90 and 120 kg ha-1 of nitrogen. Fresh and dry mass, root weight and nitrogen content from first and second harvest were evaluated. On the first harvest, there was no significant difference between the treatments for the variables analyzed. On the other hand, second harvest presented difference in fresh and dry mass and nitrogen content. Regression analyses showed a linear increase with all fertilizers used, but this growth was more accentuated for the polymerized fonts. All polymerized ureas allowed higher mass production for Marandu palisadegrass, at tillering and second cut. Foliar nitrogen availability of polymerized ureas did not differ from conventional urea, being recommended to reach pastures with higher quality and productions and to decrease nitrogen losses on the system.Keywords: Brachiaria brizantha. Stabilization technologies. Sulfur polymer.

Current status of grassland degradation and measures for grassland restoration in northern China

Grasslands in northern China are traditionally important bases for livestock production and ecological barriers for China. However, these grasslands degraded extensively due to global climatic change and poor management during the past half century. Such grassland degradation leads to dramatic declines in multiple ecosystem functions. Here we first analyzed the current status of these grasslands, with emphasizing on production and ecological functions. In general, the capability of annual aboveground biomass production in these grasslands has been greatly impaired in comparison with that in 1980s and not recovered to normal level despite application of some restoration measures. As indicated by large inter-annual variation in grasses production, the capability of feedback regulation to buffer the negative impacts of climatic change was greatly eroded. Carrying capability for animals of grasslands at the national level displayed an increasing trend in recent years, while the actual stocking capacity remained higher than its potential. Total water resources in these grasslands have declined greatly as evidenced by rapid losses of lakes and drying up of rivers. We next reviewed the major measures for restoration and management of grasslands in northern China during the past decades and analyzed their advantages and constrains, respectively. Fencing (prohibition of grazing) has been used in some area, but was difficult to extend to a larger area mainly due to economic reasons. Seasonal grazing and rotational grazing have been recommended by local governments. However, the outcomes of these measures are limited. Tillage and harrowing have also been suggested for restoration of the degraded grasslands, but it has rarely been largely used due to higher costs and inconsistent results. Reseeding grasses and/or legumes in natural grasslands are potentially useful for grassland restoration, but frequent droughts limit its application. Rotational mowing is a good measure for hey production system. Moreover, the yearly shift between grazing and mowing is much better than successive grazing or mowing. Fertilization has often been used in grassland management in most developed countries. However, this measure has not been widely applied in China due mainly to the lack of information on the types, rates and applied methods. Finally, based on our long-term studies on grassland ecology and practices in grassland restoration, especially the demonstration work in Hulunbuir grasslands, we propose some proposition on policy making and development of technical measures related to sustainable management of the grasslands in northern China. Ecological monitoring and evaluation of native grasslands should be done, and local farmers should be compensated for based on the evaluation results. Establishing cultivated pastures with high productivity and quality of forage grasses are key measures for protection and restoration of the degraded natural grasslands. As above-mentioned measures on grassland restoration usually take long time (from several years to decades) to restore the natural grasslands, new technical measures to restore the degraded natural grasslands are urgently needed. This review has important implications for improving the production and ecological functions of natural grasslands in general and for the sustainability of grass-based animal husbandry in particular.

Characterization and transcriptional regulation of chlorophyll b reductase gene NON-YELLOW COLORING 1 associated with leaf senescence in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)

Chlorophyll (Chl) degradation leads to leaf senescence and adversely affects biomass production of forage grasses and aesthetic appearance of turfgrasses. The objectives of this study were to characterize the function of a Chl catabolic gene, NON-YELLOW COLORING 1 (LpNYC1), and to understand its transcriptional regulatory pattern involved in leaf senescence in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). The LpNYC1 was initially cloned using the RACE-PCR method. Its encoded protein was localized in chloroplasts and its expression pattern was correlated with the progression of leaf senescence. LpNYC1 shared the same biological function with Arabidopsis NYC1, as overexpression of its encoding gene accelerated chlorophyll degradation in Nicotiana benthamiana and rescued the stay-green phenotype of the Arabidopsis nyc1 null mutant. A yeast one-hybrid cDNA library was prepared from senescent leaves of perennial ryegrass. Using the LpNYC1 promoter as bait, five putative transcription factors upstream of LpNYC1 were pooled out using this method, among which three (LpABI5, LpABF3, and LpEIN3) were orthologous to Arabidopsis transcription factors involved in the ABA and ethylene signaling pathways. The expression of LpNYC1 was highly inducible by ABA and ethephon (ethylene releasing reagent) but was suppressed by treatment with AVG (ethylene biosynthesis inhibitor). Furthermore, LpABI5, LpABF3, LpEIN3 directly activated the expression of LpNYC1 by binding to its promoter. The current result laid the groundwork for future in-depth analysis of the molecular regulation of LpNYC1 and Chl metabolism during leaf senescence in perennial grass species.

Effect of Large Wild Herbivore Populations on the Forage-Livestock Balance in the Source Region of the Yellow River

Unmanned aerial vehicle surveys were conducted in the summer season of 2016 and the winter season of 2017 to investigate the large wild herbivore population, including kiangs, Tibetan gazelles and bharals, in Madoi County; the source region of the Yellow River. The study generated forage grass production data in 30 m spatial resolution in Madoi County in 2016 using a downscaling algorithm; estimated a forage-livestock balance including wild animals and domestic animals; and analyzed the effect of the large wild herbivore population on the balance between forage grass and herbivory in Madoi County. The large wild herbivore population was estimated based on the density of the animals in the survey sample strip and compared and verified with available statistical data and the two survey results from the summer season of 2016 and winter season of 2017. The results showed that: (1) in the winter season of 2017, the populations of kiang, Tibetan gazelle and bharal were 17,100, 16,000 and 9300, respectively, while the populations of domestic yak, Tibetan sheep and horse were 70,800, 102,200 and 1200, respectively. The total population of large wild herbivores and domestic animals was 475,000 (sheep units). The ratio (in sheep units) between large wild herbivores and domestic animals was 1:4.5; (2) When only considering domestic animals, the grazing pressure index was 1.13, indicating slight overloading of the grassland. When considering domestic animals and large wild herbivores (kiang, Tibetan gazelle and bharal), the grazing pressure index was 1.38, suggesting moderate overloading of the grassland; (3) If large wild herbivores are not taken into consideration when the forage-livestock balance is calculated, the grazing pressure will be under-estimated by 22%. Overgrazing is the major cause of grassland degradation in Madoi County. An additional 79,000 tons of hay or a 30% reduction in domestic animals is required to maintain a forage-livestock balance in Madoi County.

Natural reactive phosphate and poultry litter association on growth of forage grasses in an Amazonian Oxisol

: The interaction of natural reactive phosphate with poultry litter may increase the production of forage grasses as a result of phosphorus (P) uptake. This study’s goal was to analyze growth, production and P concentration of diagnostic leaves of forage grasses fertilized by an Arad reactive phosphate + poultry litter association. The experiment employed a 23 factorial, with the following factors: forage grasses (Urochloa brizantha and Panicum maximum), Arad rates (0 and 50 mg dm-3 P2O5), and poultry litter (0 and 7.5 g dm-3). At the first harvest, the highest dry-matter production of leaves, sheaths + stems and shoots occurred in the interaction P. maximum × Arad × poultry litter. P concentrations in diagnostic leaves as well as number of leaves were similar between forage grasses, but higher in the interaction between Arad + poultry litter when compared to isolated fertilizers. At the second harvest, dry-matter production of shoots and sheaths + stems was higher in the U. brizantha + poultry litter interaction than in other interactions. Compared to the other fertilizers, P concentration in the diagnostic leaves at second harvest was higher in grasses fertilized with poultry litter. At second harvest, the number of leaves and tillers was highest in the U. brizantha + Arad + poultry litter interaction, followed by the Arad + poultry litter interaction. The association of Arad and poultry litter promotes adequate P nutrition and biomass production of forage grasses, and can therefore be considered an important instrument for the establishment of these grasses.

傾斜放牧草地の地形と草地管理 : 2. 糞の分布の偏りが土壌養分や牧草の生産量およびその利用率に及ぼす影響

傾斜放牧草地の地形と草地管理 : 2. 糞の分布の偏りが土壌養分や牧草の生産量およびその利用率に及ぼす影響

Simulating diverse native C4 perennial grasses with varying rainfall

Rainfall is recognized as a major factor affecting the rate of plant growth development. The impact of changes in amount and variability of rainfall on growth and production of different forage grasses needs to be quantified to determine how climate change can impact rangelands. Comparative studies to evaluate the growth of several perennial forage species at different rainfall rates will provide useful information by identifying forage management strategies under various rainfall scenarios. In this study, the combination of rainfall changes and soil types on the plant growth of 10 perennial forage species was investigated with both the experimental methods, using rainout shelters, and with the numerical methods using the plant growth simulation model, ALMANAC. Overall, most species significantly increased basal diameter and height as rainfall increased. Like measured volume, simulated yields for all species generally increased as rainfall increased. But, large volume and yield increases were only observed between 350 and 850 mm/yr. Simulating all species growing together competing agrees relatively well with observed plant volumes at low rainfall treatment, while simulating all species growing separately was slightly biased towards overestimation on low rainfall effect. Both simulations agree relatively well with observed plant volume at high rainfall treatment.

Epichloë grass endophytes in sustainable agriculture

There is an urgent need to create new solutions for sustainable agricultural practices that circumvent the heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides and increase the resilience of agricultural systems to environmental change. Beneficial microbial symbionts of plants are expected to play an important role in integrated pest management schemes over the coming decades. Epichloë endophytes, symbiotic fungi of many grass species, can protect plants against several stressors, and could therefore help to increase the productivity of forage grasses and the hardiness of turf grasses while reducing the use of synthetic pesticides. Indeed, Epichloë endophytes have successfully been developed and commercialized for agricultural use in the USA, Australia and New Zealand. Many of the host grass species originate from Europe, which is a biodiversity hotspot for both grasses and endophytes. However, intentional use of endophyte-enhanced grasses in Europe is virtually non-existent. We suggest that the diversity of European Epichloë endophytes and their host grasses should be exploited for the development of sustainable agricultural, horticultural and landscaping practices, and potentially for bioremediation and bioenergy purposes, and for environmental improvement.

Effect of dairy manure type on the carbon balance of mowed grassland in Nasu, Japan: comparison between manure slurry plus synthetic fertilizer plots and farmyard manure plus synthetic fertilizer plots

The objective of this study was to compare the carbon (C) balance of mowed grassland that received either manure slurry plus synthetic fertilizers (slurry plots) or sawdust-containing composted farmyard manure plus synthetic fertilizers (FYM plots). Dairy slurry (65.8–66.4 Mg ha–1 year–1) or FYM (36.5–39.2 Mg ha–1 year–1) was applied to a maximum based on a safe potassium content that met the potassium requirement for forage grass production. Ammonium sulfate and superphosphate were additionally supplied to meet the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus requirements. The C inputs to the soil through manure + plant residues (losses during harvesting) and the C outputs from the soil (i.e., respiration) through decomposition of soil organic matter (Rs) + applied manure (Rm) + plant residues (Rp) were monitored for 2 years. Rs and Rm were estimated by using a closed-chamber method with root exclusion. Rp was estimated by using a litter-bag method. Rs averaged 8.2 Mg-C ha–1 per 2 years. Rm accounted for 84% of the applied slurry C (5.5 Mg-C ha–1 per 2 years), and 23% of applied FYM C (9.0 Mg-C ha–1 per 2 years). Rp accounted for 68–70% of plant-residue C (1.0–1.1 Mg-C ha–1 per 2 years) in the slurry and FYM plots. The C balance of the grassland, estimated as C inputs through manure + plant residues minus C outputs through Rs + Rm + Rp, was – 7.0 Mg-C ha–1 per 2 years in the slurry plots and –1.0 Mg-C ha–1 per 2 years in the FYM plots. Thus, FYM application produced a smaller decrease in the soil organic C by 6.0 Mg-C ha–1 per 2 years in comparison with the slurry application. The decomposability of the applied manure therefore depended on the storage conditions, which have an important effect on the C balance (i.e., increment of SOC). Plant residues (i.e., harvest loss) contributed less than FYM to the C balance.

MAMMALS AND BIRDS AS AGRICULTURAL PESTS: A GLOBAL SITUATION

On the globe there are approximately 7 thousand species of pests injuring agricultural crops. Because of pests’ activity from 33 % (D. Geinrikh et al., 2003) to 40 % (D. Pimentel et al., 1999) of world agricultural products are lost with annual financial losses estimated at $ 244 billion (D. Pimentel et al., 1997). In spite of the fact that the consequences of plant diseases and harmful insects for plant growing and forage production are discussed more often, economic loss caused by mammals and birds, is quite significant. It surpasses substantially losses put by nematodes, mites and molluscs, though far less than caused by harmful insects. As a whole it is to be noted that size of damage from mammals and birds as agricultural pests decreases gradually, remaining, however, still high. The reason of it consist both in application of modern scientific-design development (new technologies of harvesting, methods of pest control, etc.) and decreasing of populations size of wild animals due to reduction of their area and deterioration of the conditions of the habitat. As a preferred group of animals – agricultural pests, rodents were chosen. Their impact on condition of such branches, as production of grain, forage grasses and ensilage crops as well as vegetable growing, orcharding, and melon-growing is described. In California the annual economic loss from Spermophilus beecheyi at grain production is $ 8-12 million (S.A. Shwiff et al., 2009). Methods of struggle with rodents are presented. Other types of mammals, the most significant from the standpoint of their injuriousness are described. Information on their composition in a series of world regions is presented. For instance, they are deer, raccoons, and coyotes in the USA, and wild boar, bear and some ungulates in forest temperate zone. The figures of financial loss from them in some countries are given. Impact of plant-eating and omnivorous species of birds on grain-growing, gardening, vegetable growing, seed farming, and breeding of new cultures of plants is considered. In Australia more than 60 avian species are the pests of garden plantings, which cause the annual material loss of $ 300 million (Yu.M. Markin, 2008). The species of birds the most harmful on a global scale are listed, the figures of economic losses from them for a series of countries are presented.

МЛЕКОПИТАЮЩИЕ И ПТИЦЫ — СЕЛЬСКОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННЫЕ ВРЕДИТЕЛИ: ГЛОБАЛЬНАЯ СИТУАЦИЯ

On the globe there are approximately 7 thousand species of pests injuring agricultural crops. Because of pests’ activity from 33 % (D. Geinrikh et al., 2003) to 40 % (D. Pimentel et al., 1999) of world agricultural products are lost with annual financial losses estimated at $ 244 billion (D. Pimentel et al., 1997). In spite of the fact that the consequences of plant diseases and harmful insects for plant growing and forage production are discussed more often, economic loss caused by mammals and birds, is quite significant. It surpasses substantially losses put by nematodes, mites and molluscs, though far less than caused by harmful insects. As a whole it is to be noted that size of damage from mammals and birds as agricultural pests decreases gradually, remaining, however, still high. The reason of it consist both in application of modern scientific-design development (new technologies of harvesting, methods of pest control, etc.) and decreasing of populations size of wild animals due to reduction of their area and deterioration of the conditions of the habitat. As a preferred group of animals agricultural pests, rodents were chosen. Their impact on condition of such branches, as production of grain, forage grasses and ensilage crops as well as vegetable growing, orcharding, and melon-growing is described. In California the annual economic loss from Spermophilus beecheyi at grain production is $ 8-12 million (S.A. Shwiff et al., 2009). Methods of struggle with rodents are presented. Other types of mammals, the most significant from the standpoint of their injuriousness are described. Information on their composition in a series of world regions is presented. For instance, they are deer, raccoons, and coyotes in the USA, and wild boar, bear and some ungulates in forest temperate zone. The figures of financial loss from them in some countries are given. Impact of plant-eating and omnivorous species of birds on grain-growing, gardening, vegetable growing, seed farming, and breeding of new cultures of plants is considered. In Australia more than 60 avian species are the pests of garden plantings, which cause the annual material loss of $ 300 million (Yu.M. Markin, 2008). The species of birds the most harmful on a global scale are listed, the figures of economic losses from them for a series of countries are presented.