Production Of Antigenic Proteins Research Articles

Plant-based Vaccines

The pandemic of novel coronavirus disease-19 caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has stimulated scientists from different backgrounds to gear up on developing vaccines against the virus. Several antigenic epitopes of the virus have the potential to induce an immunogenic response, among which viral spike protein (“S” protein) is considered to be the most suitable vaccine candidate. In this review, the latest progress in the field of plant molecular pharming (PMF), its application, limitations, and commercial initiatives toward the production of the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine have been discussed. Vaccine production by PMF has gained considerable attention these days and can be used for large-scale commercial production of antigenic proteins, antibodies, and other biopharmaceuticals. New age plant breeding techniques facilitated by CRISPR-Cas-based genome editing technology and next-generation sequencing methods also help to achieve greater precision and rapidity. Several unique advantages are offered by plant-based vaccine production techniques over that of the microbial or mammalian cell culture system. Virus-like particles and Agrobacterium-mediated transient somatic expression systems have a high potential for the large scale, cost-effective, and robust production of plant-derived vaccines against SARS-CoV-2.

Algevir: An Expression System for Microalgae Based on Viral Vectors.

The use of recombinant algae for the production of valuable compounds is opening promising biotechnological applications. However, the development of efficient expression approaches is still needed to expand the exploitation of microalgae in biotechnology. Herein, the concept of using viral expression vectors in microalgae was explored for the first time. An inducible geminiviral vector leading to Rep-mediated replication of the expression cassette allowed the production of antigenic proteins at high levels. This system, called Algevir, allows the production of complex viral proteins (GP1 from Zaire ebolavirus) and bacterial toxin subunits (B subunit of the heat-labile Escherichia coli enterotoxin), which retained their antigenic activity. The highest achieved yield was 1.25 mg/g fresh biomass (6 mg/L of culture), which was attained 3 days after transformation. The Algevir system allows for a fast and efficient production of recombinant proteins, overcoming the difficulties imposed by the low yields and unstable expression patterns frequently observed in stably transformed microalgae at the nuclear level; as well as the toxicity of some target proteins.

Plant derived veterinary vaccines

Infectious diseases remain one of the main causes of death and economic losses in animals despite the fact that prophylactic vaccination has been extremely successful in disease prevention. New effective viral, bacterial and parasitic vaccines are needed, but unfortunately production costs still remain prohibitive. In this respect plants can offer a valid alternative. Production of antigenic proteins in plants relies on a well developed and proven technology, several expression platforms are available and many different plant species can be utilized. Plant based veterinary vaccine studies have addressed protection issues in model animals and, more interestingly, some of them have examined the relevant challenge model in the specific species of interest. A general overview of the topic will be outlined together with a few selected promising examples.

세균성 질병 예방을 위한 식물 경구 백신 연구 동향

Plants have considerable advantages for the production of antigenic proteins because they provide an inexpensive source of protein and an easy administration of vaccine. Since a publication describing edible plant vaccine of HBsAg in 1992, a number of laboratories around the world have studied the use of plants as the bioreactor to produce antigenic proteins of human or animal pathogens. Over the last ten years, these works have been mainly focused on three major strategies for the production of antigenic proteins in plants: stable genetic transformation of either the nuclear or plastid genome, or transient expression in plants using viral vectors. As many antigenic proteins have been expressed in tobacco, also several laboratories have succeeded to express genes encoding antigenic proteins in other crop plants: potato, tomato, maize, carrot, soybean and spinach. At present many works for the production of edible plant vaccine against bacteria-mediated diseases have mostly performed the studies of enterotoxins and adhesion proteins. Also the development of new-type antigens (pili, flagella, surface protein, other enterotoxin and exotoxin etc.) is required for various targets and more efficacy to immunize against microorganism pathogens. Many works mostly studied in experimental animals had good results, and phase I clinical trial of LTB clearly indicated its immunogenic ability. On the other hand, edible plant vaccines have still problems remained to be solved. In addition to the accumulation of sufficient antigen in plants, human health, environment and agriculture regulation should be proven. Also oral tolerance, the physiological response to food antigens and commensal flora is the induction of a state of specific immunological unresponsiveness, needs to be addressed before plant-derived vaccine becomes a therapeutic option.

Gene inoculation generates immune responses against human immunodeficiency virus type 1.

Recently, immunization techniques in which DNA constructs are introduced directly into mammalian tissue in vivo have been developed. In theory, gene inoculation should result in the production of antigenic proteins in a natural form in the immunized host. Here we present the use of such a technique for the inoculation of mice with a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope DNA construct (pM160). Mice were injected intramuscularly with pM160 and were subsequently analyzed for their anti-HIV envelope immune responses. Antisera collected from inoculated animals reacted with the recombinant HIV-1 envelope in ELISA and immunoprecipitation assays. The antisera also contained antibodies that were able to neutralize HIV-1 infection and inhibit HIV-1-mediated syncytium formation in vitro. Furthermore, splenic lymphocytes derived from pM160-inoculated animals demonstrated HIV-envelope-specific proliferative responses. The gene inoculation technique mimics features of vaccination with live attenuated viruses and, therefore, may ultimately prove useful in the rapid development of safe and efficacious vaccines as it provides for production of relevant antigen in vivo without the use of infectious agents.

Cigarette smoking decreases bioactive interleukin-6 secretion by alveolar macrophages.

Studies suggest smokers have decreased alveolar macrophage (AM) accessory cell (AC) function and a reduced incidence of immune-mediated lung diseases such as sarcoidosis. Impaired AM secretion of cytokines important in T-cell immune responses could explain this observation. We investigated production and secretion of interleukin-1 (IL-1) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in smokers and nonsmokers. Lipopolysaccharide-induced AM IL-1 secretion in smokers was significantly reduced compared with nonsmoker AM. However, intracellular IL-1 in smoker AM was higher than in nonsmokers, suggesting that reduced IL-1 secretion was due to impaired release rather than reduced production. Smoker AM secreted significantly less bioactive IL-6 measured in a bioassay compared with nonsmoker AM. Intracellular IL-6 was virtually undetectable in both groups. In some smokers IL-6 production determined by immunoprecipitation was reduced. However, as a group antigenic IL-6 secretion determined by enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay was similar in smokers and nonsmokers, suggesting that smoker AM may cosecrete an inhibitor of IL-6 bioactivity. Indeed, AM supernatants from smokers inhibited B9 proliferation in response to maximal recombinant IL-6 stimulation, whereas supernatants from nonsmokers did not. We conclude that AM from smokers secrete less cytokines important in T-cell proliferation than AM from nonsmokers and suggest that for IL-6 this impairment is related to both decreased production of antigenic protein as well as cosecretion of an IL-6 inhibitor.