Production Of Other Industries Research Articles

Laboratory study regarding recipes and strengths of concrete produced with reactive powders and metallic fibers

Because of its multiple advantages such as durability, flexibility in use, fire resistance and low production and maintenance costs, concrete is, by far, the most popular building material currently in use. However, cement – one of the base ingredients of concrete – requires large quantities of raw materials and fossil fuels in order to be produced. In fact, in terms of pollution, it is one of the most environment-damaging products of the construction industry. A relatively recent trend in the problem of mitigating cement-related pollution is the possibility to substitute a certain percentage of cement with reactive powders, which are considered to be waste products of other industries. Concurrently, another trend is to try and obtain better performance of plain concrete, by using so-called “disperse reinforcement”. Thus, in the present article, a laboratory study is presented, regarding the obtainment and performance of concrete in which cement has been partially replaced with ultrafine silica and fly ash. Furthermore, in the case of the fly ash recipe, a percentage of metallic fibers was added, in order to study the potential performance gain with respect to plain concrete. The obtained results in compression were encouraging, in the sense that, for all recipes of concrete (plain concrete – used as reference sample versus concrete with fly ash, concrete with ultrafine silica, concrete with fly ash and fibers), the desired concrete strength class was attained. Even more, in the case of obtained results in tension by bending and splitting, the concrete with fly ash and fibers attained almost twice the tensile strength of the plain concrete. The obtained results suggest that concrete with reactive powders and/or metallic fibers can successfully substitute the plain concrete normally used in the construction industry.

IMPROVING THE SYSTEM OF ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISES ON THE BASIS OF CONTROLLING

The article is devoted to solving the problem of improving the efficiency of the adaptive management system of an agricultural enterprise on the basis of controlling. The necessity of introducing a management system aimed at ensuring a phased management of enterprise processes, taking into account the specifics of functioning with a high level of efficiency, flexibility and efficiency, has been substantiated. A retrospective analysis of the formation and development of the control system in industrialized countries has bee carried out. The results of the analysis made it possible to highlight the main concepts of controlling in accordance with their orientation. The peculiarities of the organization of the controlling system at agricultural enterprises of Ukraine in the conditions of seasonal market fluctuations have beenare determined. Growing crops, unlike the production of products in other industries, has such a feature as seasonality. The seasonal nature of production of agricultural enterprises determines the parameters of the activities of industries that produce and maintain agricultural products, harvest, preserve, process and sell agricultural products. Seasonal fluctuations have a direct impact on the intensity of the use of financial, material and technical, labor, energy and other types of resources of agricultural enterprises in certain periods of time during the calendar year. Thus, they impede the effective planning of the financial and economic activities of agricultural enterprises. This requires the improvement of the management system of an agricultural enterprise based on controlling to balance financial flows between all links of the agroindustrial complex. A mathematical model describing time parameters has been presented. Within the framework of the presented model, controlling actions aimed at ensuring the basic conditions for the functioning of an agricultural enterprise and preventing the phenomenon of shortage of funds during the “low” market period have been proposed. The basis for the construction of the model is the structure and objective proportions that determine the ratio between monetary funds and flows of funds of the enterprise of certain periods of its production and sales activities in the short term. The model allows timely detection of problems and making appropriate corrections in management decisions in order to minimize the destabilizing influence of environmental factors and eliminate unwanted deviations. Controlling actions are formed in the form of reports for the purpose of further use in the process of implementing the developed business processes.

Evaluation of the effects from various ways of import substitution “input–output” method: Evidence from the Russian Federation

The article is devoted to the issue of assessing the economic effects of import substitution to determine the consequences of investment decisions at the state level in the context of geopolitical risks. Due to a number of economic restrictions on the part of Western countries, the problem of replacing those types of products for which trade turnover were suspended particularly acute. In the conditions of a dramatic shock reduction of supply in the markets of many industries, with the level of demand remaining, there is a need for emergent reorientation of domestic production. Public investments should take into account the multiplier effect caused by the impact of each industry's output on each other. The paper proposes methodology for constructing a theoretical model of global interaction of countries based on input–output tables that take into account the production needs of each industry in the production of other industries and the multiplicative effect. Two experiments, the impact on the economies of all the countries of termination of trade between Russia and the European Union in a number of industries with subsequent measures: the replacement of European products with goods and services through China as well as its import substitution at the expense of Russia's own product facilities. The consequences of two scenarios of changes in output, tax charges, imports and exports of Russia and the EU are estimated; long-term effects are predicted. The practical significance of this work consists in helping to make managerial decisions at the state level in financing certain sectors of the Russian economy.

A general equilibrium analysis of individual choice behavior on alternative fuel vehicles

This study empirically analyzed the effect of the distribution of alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) that are expected to reduce CO2 emissions and improve the national economy. The effect of individual vehicle choices, determined using a discrete choice (DC) model, on the overall economy was quantified using a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. After integrating the two models, the DC model captured more elastic changes in the price-attribute levels by endogenously reflecting the results of the CGE model. Furthermore, the CGE model reflected the technical specification in the DC model to identify the effect of AFVs proliferation in detail. The results show that replacing ICEVs with AFVs decreased CO2 emissions in the transportation sector, but emissions from other increased production in other industries offset this reduction. AFVs are set to be mainstream in the market by 2050 and, with improved technological performance and infrastructure, fuel economic growth. Expecting that increased AFV demand will reduce CO2 emissions without the support of renewable energy generation and electrolysis of hydrogen production may be too optimistic.

Open-Source Clinical Machine Learning Models: Critical Appraisal of Feasibility, Advantages, and Challenges.

Machine learning applications promise to augment clinical capabilities and at least 64 models have already been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. These tools are developed, shared, and used in an environment in which regulations and market forces remain immature. An important consideration when evaluating this environment is the introduction of open-source solutions in which innovations are freely shared; such solutions have long been a facet of digital culture. We discuss the feasibility and implications of open-source machine learning in a health care infrastructure built upon proprietary information. The decreased cost of development as compared to drugs and devices, a longstanding culture of open-source products in other industries, and the beginnings of machine learning–friendly regulatory pathways together allow for the development and deployment of open-source machine learning models. Such tools have distinct advantages including enhanced product integrity, customizability, and lower cost, leading to increased access. However, significant questions regarding engineering concerns about implementation infrastructure and model safety, a lack of incentives from intellectual property protection, and nebulous liability rules significantly complicate the ability to develop such open-source models. Ultimately, the reconciliation of open-source machine learning and the proprietary information–driven health care environment requires that policymakers, regulators, and health care organizations actively craft a conducive market in which innovative developers will continue to both work and collaborate.

Comparative Study in Software and Healthcare Industries between South Korea and US Based on Economic Input–Output Analysis

In the modern era, software technology is being used not only as a core technology for manufacturing but also in various industries, such as telemedicine services, and the importance of the healthcare industry is being emphasized due to the demand for improved quality of life from the increase in the general level of earnings. However, if the industry emits a lot of carbon dioxide (CO2), it is questionable whether it is a sustainable industry. This study aimed to analyze the economic linkage effect of software and healthcare industries in South Korea and the United States by applying input–output analysis and examine whether these industries are sustainable in terms of CO2 emissions. The input–output tables and CO2 emissions from 2005 to 2015 were used for analysis from OECD. As a result of the analysis, CO2 emissions from the software and healthcare industries were less than 1% in both South Korea and the United States, suggesting that these industries are well-suited for low-carbon development in these countries. The forward and backward linkage effects of the software industry are different between South Korea and the United States. Specifically, the backward linkage effect of the software industry is large in South Korea, and the forward linkage effect is large in the United States. The forward linkage effect of the healthcare industry is different in the two countries, but the backward linkage effect is not. It means that there are differences in the industrial structure of the two countries. The software and healthcare industries need to devise strategies to drive production in other industries while maintaining current low carbon emission levels.

A Review of Corrosion Resistance Alloy Weld Overlay Cladding Material for Geothermal Applications

Geothermal is known as renewable energy and a clean energy source but inherent properties make this energy clean. Minerals and deposits in geothermal reservoirs create a scale that is persistent in its corrosive nature. In addition, heat extremes and pressure variations present challenges to the integrity of the wellhead components and the downhole casing. Such challenges need to be mitigated to achieve maximum output from these aging or even newly commissioned wells. The geothermal power industry has reported a wide range of corrosion problems. Given the highly corrosive conditions to be treated in the geothermal sector and the benefits of reduced unplanned downtime, operating cost savings would be expected if more CRAs clad products were used. In many cases, only the material's surface requires corrosion resistance and carbon or alloy steel can be clad with a more corrosion-resistant alloy. Up to 80% of the cost of using solid alloy can be saved by cladding. Carbon or low-alloy steel cladding can be carried out by overlay welding. This paper reviews available literature on corrosion in the geothermal environment and presents the successful use of clad products in other industries to support the rising demand for Philippine geothermal applications.

INVESTIGATION OF ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS OF FATTY WASTE PROCESSING OF SUNFLOWER SEEDS BY IMMOBILIZED LIPASE

Ukraine has a developed agricultural sector, in particular crop production, which is a source of large quantities of production residues and waste. One of the most promising areas for solving environmental problems in the production of grain products is the processing of industrial waste by enzymes and the use of processing products in other industries. The current needs of sustainable environmental practices have increased the use of enzymatic technologies in production processes. Lipases be used in the processing of waste from oil and fat enterprises, namely, waste from the stage of demetallization of hydrogenated fat from vegetable oils by enzymatic hydrolysis.The work is devoted to the study of conditions of enzyme Rhizopus japonicus lipase immobilization and its physical and chemical characteristics. Factors for obtaining immobilized biocatalysts, methods and conditions for determining the activity and stability of immobilized enzymes are highlighted. Lipolytic activity of the enzyme immobilized under these conditions remains more than 30% compared to native, which is a high indicator of activity retention. It has been shown that immobilization promotes the expansion of the pH- and thermo-optimum of the lipase. It was determined that for the Rhizopus japonicus immobilized lipase, the pH optimum increased with a shift from 7.0 to 6.5, and there was an increase in pH stability during prolonged incubation of the immobilized enzyme for alkaline and acidic pH values. It has been established that lipase immobilization leads to expansion of the thermo-optimum, as well as stabilization of the enzyme during prolonged incubation at 40 ° C and at higher temperatures (+60-80 ° C), which are possible when drying the final product. The high activity and stability of the immobilized lipase make it possible to recommend it for biotechnological processing ofoil-fat waste.

3-Dimensional Imaging of Macroscopic Defects in Aluminum Alloys: Image Reconstruction in 3D using Milling and Optical Microscopy

Abstract The investigation of macroscale defects in aluminum (Al) alloys with a 3-dimensional (3D) imaging approach is described in this report. Aluminum (Al) alloys play an important role in the production of aircraft and vehicles, as well as products in other industries. Defects present in Al alloys used for the production of aircraft, vehicles, or other products can have a significant effect on their quality, performance, and lifetime. Characterization of Al alloys in 3D can lead to a better understanding of defect formation and how to minimize or eliminate it. To produce 3D images of defects in non-transparent Al alloy, the samples are milled in small steps (10 μm). Optical microscopy 2D images of the surface are recorded after a certain thickness of alloy (50 μm) is removed. From these 2D images, a 3D image of the Al alloy defect is reconstructed. The entire workflow for Al alloy sample preparation and 2D image recording is completed in a very short time (1.5 h) using a single instrument, the EM TXP surface preparation system from Leica Microsystems. Typically, the completion of such a workflow with more common sample preparation methods would be 3 to 6 times longer. Finally, 3D image reconstruction is done using the LAS X 3D Visualization software.

3D technologies in individualized chest protector modelling

The application of 3D technology increases every day by discovering new ways of usage, which can make everyday life easier. It is most used in production of individualized items that become more accessible and fully customized to personal needs. 3D technologies such as 3D scanning, 3D modelling and additive technologies (3D printing) are used in various areas of human activity such as medicine, architecture, the movie industry, etc. In the clothing’s industry, 3D scanning the human body is digitized, which is after that used in computer software packages for custom-made clothing. Except for the fashion industry, there is a need for individualized protective work clothing and equipment production in other industries as well. The possibility of applying new technologies such as 3D scanning and 3D modelling of protective elements that can be made by using 3D printers is presented in this paper. In order to design a field hockey chest protector, male and female subjects were scanned using a 3D body scanner in several different positions specific to the sport. The chest protector was constructed and modeled based on the digitalized images. Software packages were used which enable point clouds preparation of the digitalized human body for constructing the protector, its modelling and preparation of virtually designed protectors for 3D printing. An individualized chest protector is modeled using a software program called Bender. The protector is integrated into the clothing item, completely follows the body shape and provides the necessary protection.

Enabling industrial symbiosis collaborations between SMEs from a regional perspective

Small and Medium Enterprises make up the vast majority of the businesses within the European Union, and are consequently important contributors to local and regional well-being. Nevertheless, Small and Medium Enterprises face many challenges when it comes to fostering innovation and improving environmental performance as part of their day-to-day activities. In parallel, the global consumption of raw materials is increasing, which makes it necessary to define and establish strategies to reduce the amount of, and dependence on, raw material extraction and imports, whilst also improving the sustainability of SMEs. In this context it is essential to promote circular economy strategies, such as industrial symbiosis partnerships, where companies use the waste products of other industries as raw materials. To achieve this, there is a need to find enablers to support industrial symbiosis collaborations among SMEs. These could include regional developers and local authorities. The aims of this study are to investigate whether industrial symbiosis is already a common practice within SMEs in the Västra Götaland Region of Sweden, as well as identifying barriers and motivations for partnerships. For this purpose, case studies of two industries were carried out: beer production and mushroom farming. Information was collected using on-site visits and semi-structured interviews, and the key findings where combined with a literature review, then used to propose new industrial symbiosis opportunities. The results show that industrial symbiosis is already used by some of the beer and mushroom producers. Economic gains and better environmental performance were presented as the main motivations for the companies to be involved in these partnerships. Nevertheless, industrial symbiosis could be extended to also include those companies that do not yet share their waste, mostly due to a lack of time or knowledge. Consequently, the study suggests potential industrial symbiosis partnerships that could be implemented within a short period of time, and be used by the local authorities to help SMEs to achieve circularity of wastes. Future work considers the dissemination of the results among SMEs as well as apply the approach to other types of industries operating in the region to identify additional IS potential partnerships.

ПОНЯТТЯ "КУЛЬТУРНІ" ТА "КРЕАТИВНІ ІНДУСТРІЇ" В ЗАХІДНОЄВРОПЕЙСЬКОМУ НАУКОВОМУ ДИСКУРСІ ТА УРЯДОВО-ІНСТИТУЦІЙНИХ ПРАКТИКАХ ВЕЛИКОБРИТАНІЇ ТА ЄВРОПЕЙСЬКОГО СОЮЗУ

Current European integration course in Ukraine requires rethinking Ukrainian scientific and policies meaning of the cultural sphere as the set of cultural industries, which produce and distribute goods or services with special cultural value, irrespective of the commercial value they may have. According to the main UN Resolutions, UNESCO Conventions and legal activity of the European Commission since 90th of XX century cultural assets are considered to be - an instrument and resource of economic, cultural and social sustainable development of states, cities and regions. New conditions require scientific methods for modelling Ukrainian cultural industries, identification of the priority industries. Besides the concept of cultural industries European scientists and governmental officials, use the concept of creative industries, especially, for the policymaking. All that show the need for clarification of these concepts in Ukrainian scientific field and policies making practice for governmental purposes. The purpose of this article is to study the meaning of the concepts of cultural and creative industries according to the European scientific discourse and policies making documents in the EU and the UK. The article shows that modern European scientists do not use the tradition of critical interpretation of the cultural industry, which was offered by representatives of the Frankfurt School in the mid-twentieth century. Scientists improve concepts to identify the sphere of culture as an economic reality, which is reflected in the specific governmental documents of the UK, the EU and UNESCO for policies making to improve sustainable development. The models of cultural and creative industries offer a logic of distinction according to the basis of the value component: the output of the creative activity has utility that is more functional for the consumers; it could be a component of the production of other industries, not only cultural industries. Cultural output has cultural value. The purpose of the creative industries is to produce goods and services for the commercial trade. Cultural industries produce cultural content, which embodies or conveys cultural expressions.

산업연관분석을 활용한 전력의 산업별 공급지장비용 평가 : OECD 국가를 중심으로

국가 기간산업 중 하나인 전력산업은 산출물인 전력을 각 산업부문에 중간재로 공급하고 있으므로 전력의 공급지장이 국민경제에 미치는 영향은 큰 편이다. 만약 전력 공급이 원활치 못하게 되면 직접적으로는 생산 차질, 원료 공급 불안, 각종 장비 고장 등의 생산 및 공정상의 문제를 일으키고 간접적으로는 생산 차질에 따른 전력 관련 산업의 생산 손실부터 실업 및 물가 상승 등의 문제까지 등장할 수 있다. 이에 본 논문에서는 전력산업 산출물 1원어치의 공급지장이 타 산업에 미치는 부정적 생산차질 효과를 의미하는 공급지장효과를 분석하고자 한다. 이를 위해 산업간 중간재의 흐름을 하나의 표로 나타낸 산업연관표를 활용한 산업연관분석을 적용하고자 한다. 보다 구체적으로는 OECD 주요국을 대상으로 공급유도형 모형을 활용하여 공급지장 효과를 분석한다. 공급지장효과의 값은 덴마크가 1.682로 가장 크며 다음으로 한국, 일본, 호주, 영국 순으로 나타났다. As the electricity produced from the electricity industry, a national key industry in Korea, are supplied to other industries as an intermediate goods, the supply shortage of electricity industry has a large impact on the national economy. This paper attempts to analyze the supply shortage effects which are defined as the negative impact of one won of supply failure in the electricity on the production of other industries. To this end, an input-output analysis using an input-output (I-O) table describing inter-industry flow of intermediate goods is applied. More concretely, the supply-driven model is applied subject to the OECD countries. The value of the supply effects interfere with Denmark's best large 1.682 was followed by South Korea, Japan, Australia, the UK.

The Softest Rock on Earth.

The name for talc, a sheer white mineral, is derived from the Greek word talq, which means “pure.” It is the softest rock on earth. Talc sculptures, vessels, and seals decorated with mythical creatures and animals created by the Mohenjo-Daro and Harappo craftsmen have been found that date back to over 5000 years ago. These craftsmen usually heated their talc, generating a hard, luminous surface. Talc was also used in exquisite Chinese carvings as well as Assyrian cylindrical signets and seals. The ancient Egyptians created scarabs and amulets out of talc, which they commonly varnished with a blue, glossy finish. In addition, talc sculptures from 1100 CE have been discovered in Belur, Halebid and Sravanabelagola, India. In 1890, the powdered form of talc—talcum powder—was found to relieve skin irritations caused by Johnson & Johnson’s medicated plasters and was soon used in many other plaster mixes. Johnson & Johnson also realized that talc mitigated diaper rash, leading to the invention of Johnson’s Baby Powder in 1894, which is still used today. We now know that talc, Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 or H2Mg3(SiO3)4, consists of hydrated magnesium silicate, although some substitutions of aluminum, iron, or manganese can occur. Talc is formed from soapstone, which is made of talc and other minerals, including mica, quartz, and iron. Over time, the soapstone naturally transforms into steatite and pure talc. Talc is nonporous, chemically inert, lamellar, and does not stain or burn. Although talc deposits exist throughout the world, the talc mined in each deposit has unique chemical and morphologic characteristics that make it best suited for different domestic and industrial applications. Talc is primarily used in the ceramic and paper industries, although 5% of all consumed talc is used in cosmetics. As a result of weak van der Waals forces, talc’s crystalline sheets are able to easily slide past one another, creating a lubricant that moisturizes skin. These sheets are also very flexible yet durable, enabling talc to soften and smoothen skin. Talc’s stratified sheets and its translucency allow it to cover up blemishes with just a thin coat. Because talc can be found as a solid, semisolid, or liquid matrix, talc is used in cosmetics that are solid, like antiperspirants and lipsticks; semisolid, such as blushes and eyeshadows; and liquid, like creams and lotions. Talc is also used in a variety of products in other industries, including animal feed, electrical insulation, asphalt roofing, paint, tiles, soap porcelain, pill coating, plastic, rubber, putties, pencils, crayons, counter tops, tailor’s chalk, chewing gum, and hard candy. Thus, talc is very versatile material with both dermatological and nondermatological applications.

국내 정유산업의 공급지장효과 분석

Abstract - As the petroleum products produced from the Oil refi nery industry (ORI), a national key industry in Korea, are supplied to other industries as an intermediate g oods, the supply shortage of ORI has a large impact on the national economy. This paper attempts to an alyze the supply shortage effects which are defined as the negative impact of one won of supply failure in the ORI on the production of other industries. To this end, an inter-industry analysis using an in put-output (I-O) table describing inter-industry flow of intermediate goods is applied. More concretely, the sup ply-driven model is employed over the period 1990-2012. In addition, the results are compared with th ose for shipbuilding, semiconductor, and steel industries. The results show that the supply shortage eff ects are computed to be 0.9205 won when using 2012 I-O table. More specifically, the supply shortage ef fects on chemical products and transportation industries are computed to be 0.2113 and 0.1140, which are rela tively large, The supply shortage effect of ORI is smaller than that of steel industry (1.4131 won), but larger than that of shipbuilding industry (0.0586 won) and that of semiconductor industry (0.1111 won).

Eating and Remembering

Abstract Although most Americans enjoy a plethora of food choices, as well as an abundance of foods throughout the year, most of this food is processed and travels a long way to our tables. In exchange for plentiful food, evidently, we have given up local and regional sources and supplies of food. Since about 1930, the trend toward centralization, standardization, and specialization has discouraged local production in food, as it has discouraged local and regional production in other industries. This essay considers how this process occurred in perhaps the most archetypical agricultural state--Iowa--to understand how national trends played out on a small stage, and how Iowans responded to these pressures. In the last few years, local and regional food producers have begun to rebound in reaction to these trends.

Eating and Remembering

Although most Americans enjoy a plethora of food choices, as well as an abundance of foods throughout the years, most of this food is processed and travels a long way to our tables. In exchange for plentiful food, evidently, we have given up local and regional sources and supplies of food. Since about 1930, the trend toward centralization, standardization, and specialization has discouraged local production in food, as it has discouraged local and regional production in other industries. This essay considers how this process occurred in perhaps the most archetypical agricultural state (Iowa), to understand how national trends played out on a small stage, and how Iowans responded to these pressures. In the last few years, local and regional food producers have begun to rebound in reaction to these trends.

The Emerging Offshore Software Industries and the United States Economy

The possibility that a significant number of skill-intensive service jobs might move from the United States to developing countries has generated widespread recent concern. The newness of the phenomenon has led to rampant speculation, by academics, in the press, and on Wall Street, about the potential scope of such "offshoring" and its likely impact on the U.S. economy.1 Drawing from Arora and Gambardella (2004 and 2005), this paper attempts to shed some light on the development of offshoring by focusing on one of the first skill-intensive industries to move to low-wage economies, namely software. I first provide an overview of the global software industry. Next I discuss how three emerging-market countries—India, Ireland, and Israel (the "3 I's")—separately developed dynamic software industries that in 2001 together accounted for more than $15 billion in exports. In the next section I examine the impact of this offshoring on the U.S. economy, as well as future prospects for offshoring software R&D, concluding that this is unlikely. Finally, I compare the software industry's experience with that of other skill-intensive industries. The Global Software Industry The first task in describing the global software industry is to define what is meant by software industry. At the risk of oversimplification, software-related [End Page 399] activities generally fall into one of three categories: design, coding, or maintenance. Design, which translates approximately into R&D and product development, has the highest value added of the three activities. Coding and maintenance may be thought of as analogous to production in other industries and consequently entail lower-end tasks. As discussed in more detail below, most of the functions offshored (especially to India) involve production, while design has tended to remain local. Click for larger view Table 1 Software Employment by Industry in the United States, 2001 A correlate distinction concerns the difference between people who work in the software industry and those who work with software. In the United States in 2001, for example, two out of three people who wrote computer code worked for companies outside the computer equipment or software services industries (see table 1). These people work in universities, for financial funds, and in myriad other sectors that rely heavily on information and computer technology (ICT). Moreover, the bulk of the demand for computer-related outsourcing comes from firms outside the "core" industry. Roughly speaking, banks outsource coding and maintenance; Microsoft keeps its product design activities in-house. Thus, in studying the impact of offshoring, the first place to look is in software occupations outside the software industry. Of course, the core industry is still quite large, and it is also the appropriate level of analysis for describing the rise of providers in low-income countries that focus exclusively on software-related services. Table 2 gives summary statistics by country for five "newcomers" to the software development process as well as for the three most important industrialized countries. The United States dominates the global market; it had $200 billion in sales in 2002. It is important to note that this figure excludes software written and used in-house. Although in-house-produced [End Page 400] software is difficult to measure, estimates suggest that, if included, it could constitute an additional $300 billion in value. Click for larger view Table 2 Summary Statistics for the Software Industry, 2002 or latest available figures Four of the five newcomers have similarly sized software sectors, as measured by sales revenue; Israel's sector is about half their size (see table 2).2 However, three of the newcomers, India, Ireland, and Israel, earn roughly three-quarters of their revenue from exports. Accordingly, the 3 I's have received most of the attention as offshore locales. Documenting how these three countries have developed their industries constitutes most of the following section. First, two more comments are in order on the present state of the software industry. The... collapse You are not currently authenticated. If you would like to authenticate using a different subscribed institution or have your own login and password to Project MUSE Authenticate

1. Introduction

Aggregates are defined here as particles of rock which, when brought together in a bound or unbound condition, form part or the whole of an engineering or building structure. Natural sand, gravel and crushed rock aggregates are fundamental to the man-made environment and represent a large proportion of the materials used in the construction industry. Re-use of aggregates has become a more common practice and the substitution of natural aggregates by artificial aggregates made from waste products of other industries is a small part of the industry. Production of aggregates for civil engineering and building construction is one of the world’s major industries. Quarrying is the largest industry in terms of tonnage of output (but not value) in the United Kingdom and even in 1985, production was two and a half times that of coal. With the closure of so many deep coal mines in 1999 this figure was nearly seven times larger. Consumption of aggregates has more than doubled over forty years from 100 million tonnes in 1959 to between 200 and 300 million tonnes per annum throughout the last decade (see Fig. 1.1). Sand and gravel production in 1959 was 67% of the total with crushed rock providing the balance of 33%. By 1998 this situation had changed significantly with crushed rock production increasing substantially to 132 million tonnes (60%) and sand and gravel only to 86 million tonnes (40%). In 1989, growth in demand was strong and a compound growth rate of 3% was forecast leading to

Pricing, Profits, and Technological Progress in the Pharmaceutical Industry

The decades-old debate over pharmaceutical industry prices, profits, and innovation has again intensified. A number of events coalesced to refocus public interest on pharmaceuticals. Contributing to public concern were Bureau of Labor Statistics price index increases for pharmaceuticals far outpacing those for the products of other industries. Another prominent characteristic of the pharmaceutical industry has been its extraordinarily high reported profitability. This article examines the phenomena that precipitated the current pharmaceuticals debate, their historical antecedents, and the principal questions at issue. In the author's considered judgment, a pell-mell march toward regulation of pharmaceutical industry pricing could seriously impair the industry's incentives for investment in new products.