Oil Production Research Articles

Progress in the resistance mechanism and breeding of Camellia oleifera with resistance to anthracnose

Camellia oleifera is an important woody oil crop in China, and its seed oil has a high economic value. Anthracnose, one of the main diseases in C. oleifera, occurs in a wide range in the production areas, limiting the growth and development of plants and causing serious losses of oil production. With the rapid development of the C. oleifera industry in recent years, great progress has been achieved in the research on anthracnose in C. oleifera. This paper summarized the resistance mechanisms, the mining of resistance genes, and the evaluation of resistant germplasm resources, aiming to provide a theoretical basis for the prevention and control of anthracnose and the breeding of C. oleifera germplasm with resistance to anthracnose.

Nitrogen use efficiency for seed and oil yield in some Moroccan rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) varieties under contrasting nitrogen supply

In the actual context of climate change and increasing oil and nitrogen prices, oil crops varieties with high nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) will be highly appreciated. As no studies on NUE in spring rapeseed have been carried out in Mediterranean area, including Morocco, this work aimed to assess responses of six rapeseed varieties to six nitrogen levels (0, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 Kg N/ha) and their NUE for grain and oil yields. The experiment was conducted according to a split-plot design with three replications, during two cropping seasons. Results showed that increasing nitrogen rate from 0 to 120 kg N/ha led to a significant increase in seed, oil and dry matter yields up to 85.3, 72.35 and 97.9%, respectively. NUE, NUpE (nitrogen uptake efficiency) and NUtE (nitrogen utilization efficiency) decreased by increasing nitrogen application. Regarding oil content, it was negatively affected by nitrogen fertilization, declining from 40.78% for control to 37.77% for 150 kg N/ha. Likewise, nitrogen use and nitrogen utilization efficiency for oil production (ONUE & ONUtE) were negatively affected by nitrogen application. The genotypic variation was statistically significant for all investigated traits. The variety hybrid ‘Trapper’ was the most interesting for ONUE, NUE, seed yield and dry matter. However, for oil yield it was comparable to ‘Moufida’ and ‘Alia’ which showed the highest values for harvest index, branching, pods number per plant, oil content and ONUE. These varieties grown under 120 kg N/ha treatment can be recommended for Morocco.

Seasonal price variation analysis of palm oil: case study of Nigeria (2016–2022)

To enhance the benefits derived from palm oil processing by the farmers, there is a need for the producers (farmers) and buyers of palm oil to understand the seasonal price for making informed decisions on when to buy and sell the commodity. In order to determine price at the appropriate time of the season, the study looked at the seasonal price variation analysis of palm oil and the relationship between producers and buyers. This was done by understanding buyers’ requirements, producers’ effort, measurements taken, and contracting with buyers’ credit from customers. A multiphase sampling strategy was used. Organized interviews and questionnaires were utilized to collect primary data, while the National Bureau of Statistics provided secondary time series data on the average monthly retail price of palm oil from 2016 to 2022. The need for bio-fuel, production growth, governmental regulations, market dynamics, and the seasonality of palm oil products are then identified by the study as important factors influencing palm oil price fluctuation throughout the year. The study then suggests that there’s a need for economic diversification to reduce reliance on a single sector. This study will serve as a basis for future research on palm oil price variation analysis.

ANALYZING THE IMPACT OF INDONESIAN SUSTAINABLE PALM OIL (ISPO) CERTIFICATION AND THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CRUDE PALM OIL (CPO) EXPORTS VOLUME

This study examines the impact of Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) certification on Indonesian Crude Palm Oil exports and other factors, such as commodity production and prices, exchange rates, and production levels. The data covers total CPO volume (HS codes 15111000 and 15119000) from January 2006 to December 2022, focusing on ISPO certification for large State-owned and Private Enterprises in palm oil cultivation and processing. The analysis employs the Difference-in-Differences (DID) method and multiple linear regression (MLR) to identify the linear relationship between the dependent and independent variables. The DID analysis revealed that Indonesian CPO production and global CPO prices significantly affected CPO export volumes, while soybean oil prices and effective exchange rates were not statistically significant in the regression model. The results provide valuable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders in developing strategies that support sustainable growth, enhance competitiveness, and maintain Indonesia's leading position in the global palm oil market. Policymakers should focus on encouraging broader adoption of ISPO among palm oil producers through incentives, training, and technical support, especially for smaller producers.

Thraustochytrids and Algae as Sustainable Sources of Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Aquafeeds

There is limited ability to biosynthesize long-chain omega-3 fatty acids such as EPA and DHA in food webs leading to humans. Seafood is the key source of ω3 LC-PUFA, with aquaculture expected to meet rising global demand; however, marine fish have a high dietary requirement for EPA and DHA themselves. This was traditionally met using unsustainable dietary fish oil and fish meal, but limited supply and environmental concerns have dictated research on replacements. Among the industrial sources of EPA and DHA, microalgae and especially thraustochytrids stand out as resources with high concentrations. Although unicellular, thraustochytrids are not microalgae as they are not photosynthetic but instead are microheterotrophs. This removes the light requirement and facilitates high yields of monoculture for the production of single-cell oils. The availability, in high concentrations, of usually one or the other essential fatty acid permits a calibration of the EPA and DHA dose, which is especially useful as their effects have mainly been considered together in medical and aquaculture research. EPA and DHA have different effects on cell function and are precursors of different bioactive compounds. Using thraustochytrids, microalgae, and heterotrophic dinoflagellates, the importance of DHA has been investigated. DHA was essential for optimizing the growth of the early life stages of scallops and finfish and was preferentially incorporated into fish membrane phospholipids. The production of microalgae and microheterotrophs can contribute to the treatment of wastewater and waste gas, further enhancing their sustainability and reducing the environmental costs of aquaculture.

Research on the Mechanism and Prediction Model of Pressure Drive Recovery in Low-Permeability Oil Reservoirs

China boasts significant reserves of low-permeability oil reservoirs, and the economic and efficient development of these reservoirs plays a crucial role in enhancing oil and gas production. However, the “difficult injection and difficult recovery” issue in low-permeability oil reservoirs is a major challenge. To address this, research is conducted on the mechanism of pressure drive based on the mathematical model of oil-water seepage in low-permeability reservoirs and the model of fracture permeability. The study finds that pressure drive technology, by directly delivering the pressure drive agent deep into the low-permeability reservoir, effectively prevents viscosity loss and adhesion retention of the agent in the near-wellbore area. This technology expands the swept volume, improves oil washing efficiency, replenishes formation energy, and facilitates the gathering and production of scattered remaining oil. For reservoirs with higher permeability, pressure drive yields quick results, and high-pressure water injection can be directly adopted for pressure drive to reduce costs. On the other hand, reservoirs with lower permeability have difficulty in water absorption, and the use of surfactant-based pressure drive can effectively reduce the seepage resistance of the reservoir, enhancing its water absorption capacity and improving development outcomes. Based on the mechanism of pressure drive development, further research is conducted on the production characteristics of pressure drive mines. Addressing the variability in pressure drive effects, big data analysis tools such as SHAP analysis and correlation analysis are employed to evaluate the main controlling factors of pressure drive in both new and old areas. Additionally, non-time series and time series pressure drive production forecasting models are established based on pressure drive data.

Effects of royalty payment on petroleum profit tax evasion: evidence from the Nigerian non-renewable energy sector

AbstractThe impact of the tax regime on the non-renewable energy sector has been neglected in the current literature. The sector is reported to be at the heart of most oil and gas producing economies. Considering the immense contributions of this sector, the present study investigated the effects of royalty payments on petroleum profit tax evasion in Nigeria’s non-renewable energy sector. A survey, in the form of a questionnaire, was used to collect data from 312 oil and gas companies; while SPSS and PLS software were used to analyze the data. The results indicate that there is positive and significant relationship between tax rate, detection probability, and penalty, and petroleum profit tax evasion. Additionally, the result shows that there is a significantly negative relationship between royalty payment and petroleum profit tax evasion. The findings have significant policy implications for the non-renewable energy sector across the globe. The findings confirm the fact that higher tax rate, detection probability, and penalty, have a direct impact on petroleum tax evasion. The findings also call on policymakers to reconsider the level of royalty rates to a more reasonable level so as to reduce the extent of petroleum tax evasion among the oil and gas companies.

Income of women whose jobs were to sort eucalyptus leaves after the COVID-19 pandemic

Buru Regency is the primary hub for producing eucalyptus oil, a highly valued commodity in the region. The oil extracted from the eucalyptus epidemic plant possesses antiseptic, antibacterial, and antifungal characteristics. Amidst the Covid-19 pandemic, numerous industries require it as a fundamental component of pharmaceuticals. An essential factor in the eucalyptus oil production process is the presence of eucalyptus leaves. Therefore, leaf-sorting workers, including women, are required to ensure this availability. However, in reality, the daily lives of eucalyptus leaf massagers are characterized by challenging economic conditions and a socio-economic environment that lags behind workers in other sectors. This study aims to examine and investigate the roles and work patterns of employed women and the strategies they employ to ensure the consistent flow of household income. The research employed a qualitative methodology with a phenomenological approach. A total of 24 informants were purposefully selected based on their involvement in achieving the research objectives. The results indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic has altered the circumstances of women who collect leaves and rely heavily on eucalyptus trees as a natural resource. Physical adaptation strategies are the preferred methods used to fulfill household requirements. Implementing physical adaptations does not deter women leaf-sorters from continuing their work. Their commitment to meeting their basic needs significantly motivates them to persist in their role as leaf sorters. The income of women engaged in sorting eucalyptus leaves in their households during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Analysis of the impact of geological and engineering parameters on productivity in tight oil reservoirs

AbstractTight oil resources are abundant, but the factors affecting production capacity are complex. In this paper, focusing on tight oil reservoirs, three research works were conducted. First, using the numerical simulation software, a numerical model of tight oil reservoirs was established. Second, the influence of geological parameters such as porosity and permeability on oil production were analyzed. Third, the influence of rock compression coefficient and injection fluid on tight oil production were analyzed. Results show that: (a) When the porosity is 0.05, the cumulative oil production in the first 6 years is the highest, while in the later stage of the simulation, the cumulative oil production with a porosity of 0.1 is the highest. (b) The higher the permeability, the greater the cumulative oil production. The cumulative oil production under different permeability conditions are 1392.044, 2178.805, 2939.1704, and 4038.0878 m3, respectively. (c) Under tight reservoir conditions, the impact of different rock compression coefficients on the daily oil production of oil and gas reservoirs is not very significant. (d) The recovery effect is optimal when using the N2 injection scheme. The effectiveness of the CH4 scheme is second, and there is a certain gap compared to the N2 scheme. The development plan of injecting water has the worst effect. However, compared to the depletion development model, the cumulative oil production by injecting N2, CO2, CH4, and water has all increased.

Conceptual Design and Economic Optimization of Different Valorization Routes for Orange Peel Waste: The Application of the Biorefinery Concept for an Integral Use of Raw Material

Biorefineries are novel biotechnological routes designed to generate sustainable processes from renewable raw materials. The valorization of orange peel waste (OPW) provides high-value products based on their composition. The economic optimization of biorefineries through conceptual design and generation of superstructures based on the analysis of processing units is a topic of great interest. This work aimed to obtain the most profitable biorefinery through economic optimization strategies based on high-value-added products from OPW. Two stages were considered: The first stage consisted of the conceptual design of multiple OPW processing units (production of essential oil, mucic acid, phenolic compounds, biogas, among others). An OPW flow rate of 140 kg/h was selected as the base case. From the stand-alone units, a biorefinery superstructure (second stage) was designed. Finally, the units with the best mass and energy results were selected in order to maximize the net present value (NPV) and obtain an optimal biorefinery configuration. The results evidenced that the production of essential oil and biogas presented the best yields (2.61 mL and 0.028 m3 per kg OPW, respectively). This biorefinery configuration obtained an NPV of −7.7 mUSD from the base case. Through the evaluation of the different superstructure configurations, the combined production of essential oil, biogas, and mucic acid and a scale-up of over 22 times the base case generated the minimum processing scale. Under a Colombian context, the implementation of the biorefineries analyzed are promising since the minimum processing scale contemplated only 8.8% of the OPW production. Efforts to increase yields and decrease capital and operating expenses while keeping environmental impacts low should be pursued.

Spectral induced polarization measurements to detect different scales in oil and gas production tubing

Different varieties of scales, such as iron sulfide (FeS) scale, and calcium carbonate (CaCO3), commonly precipitate within oil and gas production tubing, posing operational challenges and production losses. It is essential to implement efficient mitigation strategies and preserve production integrity to detect and characterize these scales in an accurate and efficient manner. Prior studies have explored Spectral induced Polarization (SIP) for the early detection of FeS within porous media, mainly for environmental applications or for identifying FeS in carbonate formations from the perspective of reservoir characterization. This study focuses on applying SIP to address production-related issues in production tubing. For this purpose, six actual subsurface scale samples were analyzed using X-ray Diffraction, X-ray Fluorescence, and SIP techniques. These samples were categorized into three primary groups based on their composition: Pyrrhotite, Goethite, and Calcium Sulfate Hydrate or Calcite. The results indicate that combining phase shift and conductivity as frequency functions makes it possible to develop an approach to classify and differentiate between various scale types. This information could be instrumental in developing methods that can be potentially integrated into tubing systems to detect and characterize the different scale types.

Producing aromatic‐rich oil through microwave‐assisted catalytic pyrolysis of low‐density polyethylene over Ni/Co/Cu‐doped Ga/ZSM‐5 catalysts

AbstractMicrowave (MW)‐assisted catalytic pyrolysis represents a promising method for transforming petroleum‐based plastic waste into valuable chemicals, offering a pathway towards more sustainable circular economy. In this study, catalytic pyrolysis of low‐density polyethylene (LDPE) was conducted under MW irradiation. The influence of various catalyst types (HZSM‐5, Ga/ZSM‐5, Ga/Ni/ZSM‐5, Ga/Co/ZSM‐5, and Ga/Cu/ZSM‐5) on product yield and distribution was examined. The results revealed that the Ga/ZSM‐5 catalyst yielded the maximum liquid oil, approximately 41%. Ga/Ni/ZSM‐5 performed excellently in the production of long‐chain olefins, constituting about 27% of the liquid fraction. However, Ga/Co/ZSM‐5 led to the production of heavy pyrolysis oil containing nearly 25% long‐chain paraffins, rendering it unsuitable for producing high‐value chemicals. Conversely, the Ga/Cu/ZSM‐5 catalyst yielded an aromatic‐rich pyrolysis oil, with benzene derivatives constituting approximately 90% of the liquid oil fraction, thus proving to be a suitable catalyst for the intended application. The liquid product distribution was compared with a petroleum assay by SimDist, and this suggested that utilizing the HZSM‐5 catalyst could yield an 86.4% naphtha fraction. The study also revealed that the Ga/Cu/ZSM‐5 catalyst generated the largest amounts of hydrogen and syngas, as determined by a MicroGC analysis of the gas products. This catalyst also exhibited the maximum coke deposition (1.35%) postreaction, which was attributed to its high aromatic hydrocarbon content in the pyrolysis oil and maximal hydrogen release. A comparison of fresh and spent catalyst properties was conducted to gain insights into catalyst activity and to correlate the effects of metal doping on product distribution. These findings underscore the potential of MW‐assisted catalytic pyrolysis, particularly with the Ga/Cu/ZSM‐5 catalyst, for the efficient conversion of plastic waste into valuable chemicals, thereby contributing to sustainable resource utilization and environmental conservation.

Fats and oils contaminants: an analysis of EU RASFF notifications from 1999 to 2023

Between 1999 and 2023, an extensive analysis of 713 notifications from the EU Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) related to fats and oils was conducted. The analysis covered the most frequently reported products, associated hazards, countries of origin, notification classifications, risk decisions, and actions taken in response. The data demonstrate considerable variability in RASFF notifications throughout the studied period, with significant spikes and a recent upward trend. Of all notifications, 44.32 % were categorized as alerts, and 23.42 % as border rejections. In terms of risk decisions, 34.08 % were deemed serious and 60.59 % remained undecided. Palm oil emerged as the most frequently notified product, representing 37.87 % of all notifications, followed by olive oil at 15.71 % and sunflower oil at 11.36 %. The Sudan 4 dye was identified as the most common hazard, constituting 30.01 % of all fats and oils notifications. Other notable hazards included benzo(a)pyrene (26.65 %), glycidyl esters (6.03 %), and chlorpyrifos (3.37 %). The top three countries of origin for RASFF notifications on fats and oils were Ghana (22.30 %), Ukraine (13.18 %), and Italy (9.96 %). These findings could benefit further research and influence decision-making, thereby enhancing food safety protocols in the global production, processing, and distribution of fats and oils.

Utilization of sterculia foetida oil as a sustainable feedstock for biodiesel production: optimization, performance, and emission analysis

This study examines the feasibility of employing Sterculia foetida oil as a sustainable feedstock for biodiesel production, offering an eco-friendly substitute for conventional diesel fuel without requiring engine alterations. The method employs a two-step catalytic process, first with acid esterification to reduce the free fatty acid (FFA) concentration, followed by alkaline esterification for biodiesel synthesis. Essential process parameters—such as reaction time, temperature, catalyst concentration, and molar ratio—are carefully optimized to improve biodiesel yield. Under optimal conditions, the process achieves an impressive conversion rate of 95.2 %, demonstrating the considerable potential of Sterculia foetida oil for biodiesel production. Furthermore, blends of Sterculia foetida biodiesel (SFB) and diesel demonstrate a notable decrease in harmful emissions, especially a 2.3 % reduction in carbon monoxide (CO), a 4.1 % reduction in hydrocarbons (HC), and a 1.9 % decrease in smoke emissions compared to pure diesel. This study highlights the innovative use of non-edible oil as feedstock, a customized optimization method, and a highly effective catalytic process, all while emphasizing environmental sustainability and reduced emissions.

Oil biomarkers: main types, value and applications fields

Recent advances in modern chemistry provide environmental scientists with the ability to identify and track spilled oil residues in various environments. The compounds commonly used to identify the source of spilled oil are called biomarkers, they are universal in crude oil and petroleum products and are generally more stable to atmospheric environmental influences than most other oil constituents. The distribution of biomarker compounds is unique to each oil. Fingerprint indices calculated from oil fingerprints provide a stable and useful tool for determining the correspondence or non-correspondence of various oil residues present in some environmental samples. This paper highlights the main biomarkers of oil, their role in the study of oil and its deposits, and also shows the results of the authors’ own research.

Maintenance Management Optimization: Evaluating Manual and Automated Methods of Tracking Uptime Hours for Offshore Equipment

Offshore oil and gas fields are among the largest contributors to global oil and gas production. The reliable functioning of these facilities relies heavily on the reliability of the process equipment. Managing and operating offshore equipment is inherently complex, requiring careful planning to ensure maximum uptime and minimal downtime. This study addresses a significant gap in knowledge by comparing the effectiveness of manual and automated methods for tracking the uptime hours of offshore equipment. Using a mixed-methods approach that incorporates quantitative and comparative data analysis, the research assesses the impact of each tracking method on equipment reliability, maintenance costs, and production efficiency. The findings indicate that both methods exhibit high level of accuracy and consistency, with minor differences, confirming the reliability of both methods. However, the study reveals that the automated tracking system, which demonstrated more significant data consistency across shifts when compared to the manual approach, offers substantial advantages, including reduced human error, improved data collection efficiency, and enhanced maintenance scheduling. These benefits, result in improved equipment reliability, lower maintenance costs, optimized maintenance management and greater production efficiency. The study recommends the use of automated logging systems, regular calibration, and maintenance of automated systems, and combining data from both approaches for cross-verification. To ensure accuracy and consistency across all equipment and shifts, it is advised that personnel involved in manual logging receive enhanced training and that logging procedures undergo continuous improvement.

Detection of tropane alkaloid contaminations in unprocessed soybeans and their fate in food and feed processing

Datura stramonium and other nightshade plants commonly occur as weeds and have the potential to contaminate crops with toxic tropane alkaloids. Here, the contamination of soybeans with the tropane alkaloids atropine and scopolamine after co-harvesting with thornapple plants is reported. The potential route of contamination was found to be independent of the thornapple seeds. The further fate of tropane alkaloids in downstream processes was evaluated in laboratory-scale tofu and soybean oil production. It was determined that a relatively small portion of the alkaloids is persistent in the tofu, while the reduction in soybean oil and press cake is less pronounced. No regulation is in place for the maximum amount of tropane alkaloids in soybeans, but the limits for other food crops were exceeded both in the raw and processed goods.

Assessment of Nitrogen Volatilization and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Urea with N-stabilizer in a Productive Oil Palm Plantation (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.)

Nitrogen fertilization plays a crucial role in supporting plant growth. However, nitrogen in the soil can be lost through rainwater leaching. To address this issue, the concept of fertilizing N-stabilizer-coated urea was proposed. The aim is to reduce nitrogen loss on the field due to vaporization and minimize greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of this N-stabilizer-coated urea in reducing nitrogen loss through vaporization, improving GHG emissions, and its impact on plant growth and leaf quality. The research was conducted at IPB-Cargill Jonggol, Bogor, West Java, oil palm education and research station from August 2021 to March 2022. The experimental design employed a completely randomized block design. The fertilizer treatments included four types of nitrogen fertilizers: urea (46% N), coated urea with N-stabilizer (46% N), ZA (21% N), and NPK (15-15-15, 15% N). Additionally, a control treatment without any fertilizer application was included. All treatments were replicated three times. Data analysis was done using the SAS (Statistical Analysis System) 9.0 program. The F-test was conducted, followed by DMRT (Duncan Multiple Range Test) advanced tests at a 5% error level. The results revealed that urea with N-stabilizer fertilization significantly reduced NH3-vaporization by 53% in the first week compared to the application of normal urea. NH3-vaporization level from ZA and NPK was < 1% compared to urea application. Field application of urea with N-stabilizer showed no significant difference in greenhouse gas emission (GHG) compared to the other nitrogen fertilizer types. The GHG values ranged from 7.10 to 7.29 g CO2-e.m-2 per day. The use of N-stabilizer-coated urea could be an effective approach to minimize nitrogen loss through vaporization and reduce greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining comparable results to other nitrogen fertilizer types in terms of GHG emissions on the field.

Analysis of Inventory Control in the Downstream Fuel Supply Chain : An Indonesian Prespective

This research focuses on determining the level of inventory in a downstream supply chain for fuel products in Indonesian oil and gas company prespective. The variability in supply and demand is a problem in maintaining the stability of services to the consumers. High inventory costs that are completely borne by the company are also a problem that needs to be controlled. Therefore, determining inventory levels is very important to mitigate the variability of supply and demand that occurs with optimum inventory costs. This research designs a probabilistic model by considering variability in supply and demand to determine safety stock so that the correct level of Fuel Product inventory at each Storage Point can be determined. This research method is quantitative research based on empirical data. It is hoped that the research results will be able to obtain inventory control which can be taken into consideration by oil and gas company in managing the downstream supply chain of fuel products.

Waste-to-Ammonia: A sustainable pathway for energy transition

Ammonia, with its exceptional storage and transportation characteristics, emerges as a promising hydrogen carrier that can play a crucial role in this transition. This study investigates the techno-economic and environmental feasibility of utilizing produced water (PW), a waste product in oil and gas production, for ammonia production (AP). Accordingly, three distinct scenarios of utilizing the PW to produce ammonia are analyzed: i) fossil fuel-based (FF) AP without CO2 capture (gray), ii) FF-based AP with CO2 capture module (blue), and iii) a solar-thermal based AP (green). Results suggest that the blue system offers a compromise between environmental impact and economic feasibility, achieving a significant reduction in CO2 emissions of 0.605 kg CO2/kg NH3 compared with the 1.87 kg CO2/kg NH3, where gray, blue, and green AP are associated with the values of $435.63/tNH3, $480.41/tNH3, and $955.05/tNH3, respectively. Moreover, this study highlights the influence of carbon tax policy on the cost of the FF-based gray systems, while becoming unprofitable above $104.75/tCO2. Analysis of AP costs across shale formations reveals variations in product cost with salt concentrations, with the Bakken and Haynesville formations exhibiting the highest cost per ton of ammonia of $433 and $426/tNH3 for blue and gray systems, respectively. Notably, it is observed that the formations with high solar radiation and low salinity including Permian and Niobrara show potential for green ammonia with payback periods of 13 and 15 years, respectively. This can be used as reliable benchmark to propose a model for achieving sustainable society.