Charcoal Producers Research Articles

Perceived Effect of COVID-19 on the Health of Charcoal Producers in the Guinea Savannah Agro-Ecological Zone of Nigeria

Charcoal producers ignored the health implications of the activity especially during the COVID-19 pandemic resulting in several health disorders. Thus, the study examined perceived effect of COVID-19 on the health of charcoal producers in the derived savannah agro-ecological zone of Nigeria. Data were collected through the use of structured interview scheduled. A total of 178 respondents were selected using multistage sampling technique. Data were analysed through the use of frequency, mean, standard deviation and inferential statistics: chi-square and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The study reveals that most of the respondents strongly agreed that they usually use local herbs to treat all ailments during COVID-19. More than 50% of them always experienced difficult breathing during COVID-19, and that high death were recorded than before COVID-19 pandemic, while 88.2% of the respondents perceived low level of the effect of COVID-19 on their health. In addition, more than 50% of them strongly agreed that COVID-19 does not exist at all, that it is a taboo, while shaking hands with customers/friends is a symbol of love and that they cannot do without touching both face and nose during COVID-19 pandemic respectively. However, 93.3% of the respondents did not comply with the COVID-19 preventive measures. The study concludes that charcoal producers did not believe in the existence of COVID-19 and this may be dangerous to their health. Hence, education awareness on the hazard of COVID-19 to the health of charcoal producers should be encouraged.

Assessment of Alternative Energy Sources to Charcoal in NTCHEU District, MALAWI

Alternative sources of energy are highly recommended in most parts of the world including Malawi. The purpose of this study was to assess the alternative sources of energy to charcoal. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used and purposive and random sampling techniques were applied in two different stages respectively. The first phase was a selection of the village which produce and use charcoal, and the second phase was the selection of charcoal producers. Data were analyzed in SPSS version 21 and MS Excel. About three-quarters of forest cover has been depleted due to charcoal production. Results also revealed that only 32% of the respondents use alternative sources of energy: briquettes (8%), biogas (2%), solar (1%), electricity (20%), and coal (1%). In addition, 42% of the respondents produce charcoal as the main source of income while 58% have other sources of income generation. The main alternative source of energy include; energy produced from farm waste, and biogas in addition to hydroelectricity which is expensive. It is concluded that increased charcoal production and use constitutes a serious setback to transitioning to alternative sources of energy. There is a need for government and policymakers to provide favourable environment for small charcoal producers and provision of subsidies for alternative sources of energy like hydroelectricity.

Influence of anthropization on flora and the carbon stock of the corridor's vegetation at the Benoue National Park of Cameroon

This study was conducted to examine the impact of anthropic activities carried out by migrants population on six corridors (Buffalo, Giraffe, forest Gallery, Cobe défassa, Derby Eland and Hippotrague) crossing two hunting areas if interest (HAI 1 and 4) made of five riverside villages (Banda-Wani, Sakdjé, Dogba, Djaba and Guidjiba) in the Benoue National Park (BNP) of Cameroon. The main objectives were to (i) determine the various threats to the established corridors, (ii) assess the influence of anthropogenic activities on flora and the fauna passing through the corridors, and (iii) estimate the carbon stocks in the investigated corridors. Floristic surveys were conducted in the selected six sites of 50 m x 20 m, divided each in 10 subplots. In the investigated corridors, nine types of anthropogenic activities were identified in total. However the main anthropogenic activities were: logging (53.56%), agriculture (20.23%) and overgrazing (6.21%). The main users of the corridor's natural resources are farmers (100%), gold miners (51.38%) and charcoal producers (32.78%). Plants species such as Piliostigma thonningii (82.674%), Combretum spp. (78.18%) and Tamarindus indica (75.06%) are the most endangered species. The Shannon diversity index is high in all corridors (between 4.30 and 5.07) and the equitability index is regular everywhere (between 0.50 and 0.59). This study showed that, conservation and recovery efforts in the BNP need to be increased. There is an urgent need for the Cameroonian government to set up a protection and participatory management system to safeguard the wildlife biodiversity in the National park of Benoue (BNP).

How land tenure and labor relations mediate charcoal’s environmental footprint in Zambia: Implications for sustainable energy transitions

• Land tenure and labor market conditions structure charcoal production’s environmental footprint in Zambia. • Charcoal is a one-off byproduct of agricultural conversion on customary and private lands, so from an unsustainable source. • Charcoal drives forest degradation in Forest Reserves (State Lands), with low regeneration potential. • Charcoal production creates a biomass loss of at least 50% from extraction of most tree species of all sizes (≥10 cm dbh). • Charcoal producers' effort responds to un(der)employment, specially during the season when agricultural labor demand wanes. Charcoal is the main cooking fuel in urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa and demand is expected to rise with urbanization. We explore the environmental footprint and socioeconomic drivers of charcoal production, using data from original field vegetation and producer surveys in a hotspot charcoal production area outside Lusaka, Zambia. We find that land tenure and labor market conditions structure the environmental footprint of charcoal production. Agricultural expansion is the main driver of forest conversion on customary and private (leasehold) lands where charcoal is a one-off byproduct of land-use change by farmers. By contrast, charcoal production drives forest degradation on State land, especially in Forest Reserves where agriculture is prohibited but the more intact forest is intensively harvested, largely by urban residents or, during the dry season, by nearby farmers lacking remunerative employment. Charcoal producers are remarkably varied, with sharp variation in net financial gains that are positively and significantly associated with volume produced. Strategies for improving the sustainability of charcoal production differ by land tenure type but require a combination of enhanced enforcement of existing land use restrictions, improved labor market conditions, greater support for sustainable agricultural intensification, devolution of forest management to more local level, and adoption of alternative cooking fuel sources by urban residents.

Evaluating charcoal producers’ preferences for improved production systems in Marigat sub county, Baringo County

Many households in Kenya depend on charcoal as an important source of energy. However, overharvesting of trees and the use of inefficient technologies promote unsustainable charcoal production. Furthermore, high demand for charcoal from slow-growing indigenous species contributes to increased pressure in the drylands, threatening future supply and livelihoods. Recent studies have shown that Prosopis juliflora an invasive species introduced to arrest desertification equally produces quality charcoal. Also, improved technologies with more efficient carbonization rates have the potential to reduce not only the number of trees harvested but also quality of charcoal. Despite the existence of improved technologies, and the presence of fast-growing Prosopis juliflora, charcoal production remains unsustainable in Baringo County. This study used choice experiments (CE) to determine charcoal producers willingness to pay (WTP) for improved charcoal production system in Marigat sub-county.The attributes measured include charcoal quality, wood quality, P.juliflora growth trend and kiln type. Primary data was collected from a sample of 384 randomly selected charcoal producers using a semi-structured questionnaire. Study results indicate that charcoal producers were willing to pay more charcoal quality improvement which is associated with improved production systems and quality wood. However, they were not willing to pay for improved kilns. The findings suggest that the charcoal producers have a natural inclination to improved technologies with the study recommending charcoal producer association (CPA) membership as the first and efficient point of contact to adopt and use improved technologies.

Wind Energy Potential by the Weibull Distribution at High-Altitude Peruvian Highlands

Alternative sources of energy are highly recommended in most parts of the world including Malawi. The purpose of this study was to assess the alternative sources of energy to charcoal. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used and purposive and random sampling techniques were applied in two different stages respectively. The first phase was a selection of the village which produce and use charcoal, and the second phase was the selection of charcoal producers. Data were analyzed in SPSS version 21 and MS Excel. About three-quarters of forest cover has been depleted due to charcoal production. Results also revealed that only 32% of the respondents use alternative sources of energy: briquettes (8%), biogas (2%), solar (1%), electricity (20%), and coal (1%). In addition, 42% of the respondents produce charcoal as the main source of income while 58% have other sources of income generation. The main alternative source of energy include; energy produced from farm waste, and biogas in addition to hydroelectricity which is expensive. It is concluded that increased charcoal production and use constitutes a serious setback to transitioning to alternative sources of energy. There is a need for government and policymakers to provide favourable environment for small charcoal producers and provision of subsidies for alternative sources of energy like hydroelectricity.

صناعة الفحم النباتى بمحافظة الشرقیة دراسة فی جغرافیة الطاقة

مستخلص البحث باللغة العربية تناول هذا البحث صناعة الفحم النباتى فى محافظة الشرقية - المنتج الأول للفحم النباتى على مستوى الجمهورية 2017- من خلال المنهج الوصفى, وتناول فى المتن تاريخ الصناعة فى مصر, ثم توصيف المکامير, توزيعها، ومساحاتها على مستوى المراکز والتى اقتصر تواجدها على ستة مراکز فقط بالمحافظة, ثم دراسة العوامل المؤثرة فى الصناعة والقيمة المضافة لها ,وفى النهاية تم تحليل التأثيرالبيئى لمکامير الفحم فى المحافظة , وأسفر البحث عن مجموعة من النتائج مجملها أنها صناعة ذات ثقل اجتماعى واقتصادى قوى, يجب على صانعى القرار استثماره من خلال تطبيق التوصيات الوارده بالبحث والعمل على سرعة تحديد أفضل المواقع لتجميع المصنعين بعيدا عن الرقعة العمرانية. Abstract This research dealt with the charcoal industry in Sharkia Governorate - the first producer of charcoal at the level of the Republic 2017 - through a descriptive approach, and in the text it dealt with the history of industry in Egypt, then the description of the charcoal Kilns, their distribution, and their areas at the level of Administrative centers, whose presence was limited to only six centers in the governorate. Then, studying the factors affecting the industry and its added value, and in the end the environmental impact of charcoal Kilns in the governorate was analyzed, and the research resulted in a set of results, as a whole, that it is an industry with a strong social and economic weight that and decision makers must invest in by applying the recommendations contained in the research and working on speedy identification The optimum locations for assembling manufacturers far from the urban area.

Charcoal producers and the pandemic: effects of COVID-19 in Pokot Central, Kenya

When the COVID-19 pandemic unfolded, public health measures were implemented globally. Early on, concerns grew that lockdowns and travel restrictions could have severe consequences, especially for marginalized communities in the Global South. In Sub-Saharan Africa, wood charcoal is not only an important cooking fuel, but provides income for many rural households. Despite its economic value, the charcoal sector is, however, largely unregulated and viewed exclusively as an environmentally damaging industry by policy makers and the public who make it responsible for large-scale deforestation. The present study employs a sustainable livelihood framework to assess the ability of charcoal producers in northwestern Kenya, to cope with a short-term shock such as the COVID-19 pandemic and preventive measures. It furthermore compares their access to health information to that of non-producers. A street survey of 139 respondents allowed to gain rapid insights into the realities of a group not accessible via online or telephone surveys. The results show that 87 % of charcoal producers face severe decline of this economic practice because of limited market access. These losses cause them food insecurities, while non-charcoal producers are more worried about social consequences of the restrictions. Though charcoal producers and non-producers feel equally well informed about the pandemic, producers are less likely to access reliable information channels than non-producers, resulting in an uneven distribution of health information across the community. By investigating the response of producers to an external shock and limited market access this study adds to the understanding of local vulnerabilities and the sustainability of rural livelihood strategies. This research argues for inclusive policy response to ensure consideration of the informal sector in crisis response as well as to provide adequate and low-threshold access to health information.

The Socio-economic and Environmental Implications of Supplying Charcoal in Yaounde City

This article aims to identify and assess the socio-economic and environmental implications of supplying charcoal in the city of Yaounde. To achieve the above-mentioned goal, investigations based on a standardized questionnaire (130 charcoal producers and sellers), formal interviews (7 resource persons), informal discussions, field observations and floristic survey were carried out in Bikok between the last quarter of 2016 and the second quarter of 2017. Bikok, a subdivision located in the neighbourhood of Yaounde is one of the most important supply sites of charcoal for the city. Investigations revealed that, accelerated demographic growth over the past fifty years, unemployment and poverty constitute the main factors for the increase in the production and consumption of charcoal in the city. Poverty, unemployment and the urge for the satisfaction of basic needs constituted the main reasons for involvement of 98.8% of charcoal producers in the activity. The increase in urban demand for charcoal is at the origin of several significant biophysical impacts, including the degradation of forests and soils as well as the decrease in the availability of some Non-Timber Forest Products and animal species. In the survey villages, a total area of 3.1 hectares of forest is cut each year and the average distances from inhabited areas to harvesting areas, increased from 0.8 to 5 km in 10 years. 76.6% of charcoal producers believe that some animal species are increasingly rare in the locality. On the socio-economic level, this activity creates jobs, generates income thereby increasing the living standards of producers and sellers. More than 300 people are involved in this activity who earns on average an income of 3000 to 6000 Central African Franc (XAF) per day. Decrease in the availability of certain NTFPs and damage to the health of producers constituted some of the negative socio-economic impacts of this activity. It is imperative to adopt measures to limit the negative impacts of this activity while ensuring a sustainable supply of charcoal in the city or the use of alternative sources of fuel.

Analysis of Tree Species Preference and Reasons among Commercial Charcoal Producers in Nasarawa State, Nigeria

Commercial charcoal production has over time become an indispensable means of livelihood among rural settlers in Nasarawa State. However, charcoal production involves woodland exploitation which contributes to deforestation. Considering the growing significance of charcoal in rural and urban livelihoods in Nasarawa State, this paper analysed the preference of tree species and reasons among commercial charcoal producers in Nasarawa State in view of identifying endangered species and suggesting measures to ensure sustainability of the business. The study employed descriptive survey using both qualitative and quantitative data drawn from primary and secondary sources. Questionnaire was administered to 450 respondents randomly sampled from commercial charcoal producers drawn from 6 communities and 3 LGAs of Nasarawa State. Interviews and Focus Group Discussions were also conducted and the data obtained were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics in Microsoft Excel and SPSS (version 23). A total of 22 tree species were identified as usable for charcoal production in the study area. Investigation into the producers’ preference of tree species showed that eight (8) were mostly preferred out of which Anogeissus leiocarpus (Marke) (57.3%), Erythrina senegalensis (Madri) (52.2%) and Prosopis Africana (Kirya) (49.1%) were among the top three. Marke, Kirya and Madri were the most preferred species in Akwanga, Doma and Karu production areas respectively. High charcoal yield, good combustion quality, high heat content of resulting charcoal, less ash production were the main reasons for their preferences. Most of the preferred tree species have been depleted to the point that they are no longer commonly found for use among commercial charcoal producers in the state. The most endangered species due to commercial charcoal production were Anogeissus leiocarpus (Marke), Erythrina senegalensis (Madri) and Prosopis Africana (Kirya). However, pressure is currently on Teminalia glocosece (Baushe/Uko), Andira inermis (Gwaska), Ficus Spp (Baure), Vitellaria paradoxa (Kede) and Gardinia aqualla (Gaude) due to the difficulties in finding the endangered ones which constituted the most preferred species among producers in Nasarawa State. It was recommended that state energy policies should incorporate a law recognizing charcoal as a key source of energy in the State, thereby encouraging investments in the activity of commercial charcoal producers. Furthermore, conservation plans and practical measures of replacing the extracted trees from woodlands/forests for commercial charcoal production should form the basis for license issuance for charcoal production.

Sustainable Business Models for Informal Charcoal Producers in Kenya

The sustainable business model (SBM) concept requires enterprises to integrate sustainability aspects in their planning and operations. Although 60% of the global working population make their living in the informal sector mostly in low-and middle income countries, the potential for SBMs has rarely been analyzed for this category. This study explores the SBMs of informal charcoal-producing enterprises in coastal Kenya. It describes key business-model components: value proposition, value creation and delivery, and economic value capture. Impact and dependency on sustainability-related indicators were also studied. Data were obtained through individual interviews, focus-group discussions, and workshops for charcoal producers and other relevant stakeholders. Findings demonstrated that charcoal enterprises, despite their informal status, adopt elaborate business models. The incomes positively affect several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by reducing, if not eradicating, poverty and supporting basic livelihood needs. Examples of negative impacts on some SDG include the activity’s contribution to forest degradation. Feedback impacts, where SDG status influence the informal enterprises’ opportunities were also identified. The SBM model contributes to the development of a balanced sustainability transition of the charcoal sector. We suggest further analyses of the role of informal enterprises in the bioenergy sector for sustainable development and how their SBMs could be improved.

Stakeholder priorities determine the impact of an alien tree invasion on ecosystem multifunctionality

Abstract While the ecological impact of environmental change drivers, such as alien plant invasions, is relatively well described, quantitative social‐ecological studies detailing how these changes impact multiple ecosystem services, and subsequently stakeholders, are lacking. We used a social‐ecological approach to assess how Prosopis juliflora (Prosopis henceforth), an invasive tree, affects the provision of multiple ecosystem services to different stakeholder groups in a degraded East African dryland. We combined plot‐based ecological data on the impacts of the tree on indicators of ecosystem service supply with questionnaire survey data describing ecosystem service priorities from eight different stakeholder groups. These data were then used to quantify how tree invasion impacted individual ecosystem services, and the overall supply of services, relative to the priorities of each stakeholder group, using an ecosystem service multifunctionality metric. In the study area, we found that Prosopis significantly increased the supply of shade, wood production and honey production, but reduced the supply of water availability, tourism potential and biodiversity protection. Priorities for specific services differed between stakeholder groups. Although most groups assigned a high priority to provisioning services, such as water and crop production, it was either provisioning or cultural services which were a primary source of income, that were deemed most important. Combining supply and priority data showed that most stakeholder groups saw a net decrease in ecosystem service multifunctionality with increasing Prosopis invasion, or no significant change overall. Increasing Prosopis cover increased multifunctionality for only two stakeholder groups, charcoal producers and NGOs involved in regional development. Our research highlights the need to account for stakeholder priorities in studies of how global change impacts ecosystem multifunctionality. We found that there are conflicting patterns of ecosystem service priority between different stakeholder groups, resulting in large variation in how different groups were impacted by the invasive tree. Our approach also highlights possible synergies and conflicts when managing this tree invasion. More broadly, we recommend that future studies of ecosystem multifunctionality explicitly consider differing stakeholder priorities, as these strongly influence the perceived impact of environmental and land management change. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Understanding Factors Affecting Livelihood Strategies of Firewood and Charcoal Producers in the Dry Lands of Ethiopia

This study identifies the determinants that influence the livelihood strategies of firewood and charcoal producers. The paper involves a survey questionnaire of 295 sample households based on snow ball sampling method in the dry lands of Oromia and Afar regions during 2019. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and multivariate probit (MVP) model. Results show that 39% of households derived their income from crop and 47% from wood fuel for those households whose livelihoods strategy in farming. Households in agro pastoral livelihood strategy about 58% and 21 % derived their income from wood fuel and crop, respectively. Households whose depend their livelihood strategies on pastoral, 51% generate their income from wood fuel and 29% from wage. The model reveal that sex, age, education, family size, livestock holding, farm size, distance, off-farm activity, relief aid, training, market information, and membership on institution were significantly affected the livelihood strategy of firewood and charcoal producers in the dry lands of Ethiopia. Therefore, firewood and charcoal producer livelihoods are diverse and policy makers need to reflect on the most suitable ways of supporting sustainable use of dry land forest management and socio-economic intervention options. Keywords : Charcoal, Dry land, Ethiopia, Firewood, Livelihood DOI: 10.7176/JETP/11-2-02 Publication date: March 31 st 2021

The Potentials and Challenges of Achieving Sustainability through Charcoal Producer Associations in Kenya: A Missed Opportunity?

The charcoal industry, specifically charcoal production, is tremendously valuable to Kenya for its contribution to economic, social and environmental nexus. Considering the degradation of ecosystems and charcoal production’s critical role, the government established the Forest (charcoal) rules of 2009, assigning commercial charcoal production under Charcoal Producer Associations (CPAs). Identifying numerous bans in the recent past, this paper sets out to understand CPAs’ potentials and challenges in attaining sustainability within the sector. Using focus group discussions with CPA members from Tana River and Kitui counties, the paper outlines analysed data within the functionality, governance and policy implications parameters of operation. The findings show high economic value for the members and an in-depth environmental significance to the communities within which these CPAs exist. Thus, we propose a schematic to enhance charcoal production processes to achieve sustainable ecosystems and livelihoods. There is high potential within the CPAs for the sector’s sustainability through monitoring platforms, restoration plans, adopting sustainable practices, knowledge dissemination and societal advancement. To advance this untapped potential of these associations, we recommend building their technical, business and governance skills, exploring various restoration schemes, financial and regulatory support in implementation, and policy support.

STRUCTURING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE Acacia meanrsii De Wild CHARCOAL PRODUCTION CHAIN IN THE VALLEYS OF CAÍ AND TAQUARI, RS

ABSTRACT Due to globalization, market evolution, and technological implementations, the production chains have been improving, becoming essential for the consolidation of several products in the market, including charcoal, used as a renewable energy source. Thus, the objective of this work was to characterize the structure of this chain, from the qualitative and quantitative perspective, in the municipalities of the Valleys of Caí and Taquari and the interaction between the actors involved. The methodology was based on the division of the chain into macrosegments, with socioeconomic units of production characterized by the application of questionnaires. As a result, it was verified the presence of the production macrosegment (nursery and reforestation sectors), industrialization (charcoal production and packaging sectors), and commercialization (packaging sector), formed by family units. The packaging segment has outsourced manpower and more technology than the others. It was evidenced that a single socioeconomic unit of production can be part of more than one macrosegment or segment and, allied to this, in general, it is possible to perceive the characterization of a long chain of production. It appears that only 3.8% of charcoal producers also pack and sell their products, the remainder (96.2%) sell their production to packers who standardize the product, making the sale to the final consumer directly or indirectly.

Woodland access arrangement for charcoal production and its influence on woodland degradation in Kintampo Municipality, Ghana

Access to woodland plays a critical role in woodland degradation, yet policy efforts at addressing woodland degradation have focused on access to woodland for farming and lumbering to the detriment of access to woodland for charcoal production. Access arrangement to woodland for charcoal production is subsumed under access to woodland for farming, complicating the efforts at understanding the nexus between charcoal production and woodland degradation. This study assessed access arrangement to woodland for charcoal production and how it influences the state of the woodland in the Kintampo Municipality, a sub-political administrative area of Ghana. The views of 103 randomly selected charcoal producers from Asantekwa and Kunsu communities in the Municipality were assessed in relation to woodland access arrangement for charcoal production. Binary logistic regression was used to identify factors of charcoal production that influence woodland degradation. The results showed that procedures of access to woodland (P = 0.003), attitude of producers toward the woodland access arrangement (P = 0.023) have significant negative influence on woodland degradation. Producers perceived the procedure of access as unfair and are unwilling to follow it. Perceived unfairness in the procedure of access and unwillingness to follow it are pointers of circumventing the procedure of access to woodland, which is a recipe for conflict and woodland degradation. Woodland owners, chiefs and charcoal producers must make concerted efforts to revise the current access arrangement to woodland so that they become fair and acceptable to all parties in order to ensure sustainable woodland use.

Effect of the Practices of Charcoal Producers on the Sustainability of Shea Tree in the North-central Nigeria

Effect of the Practices of Charcoal Producers on the Sustainability of Shea Tree in the North-central Nigeria

GENETIC PARAMETERS OF Eucalyptus spp. CLONES IN NORTHEASTERN BRAZIL

Brazil is the largest charcoal producers in the world, with the main centers of charcoal consumption located in the states of Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso do Sul, Espírito Santo, Maranhão, and Pará. Planting of Eucalyptus in the northern and northeastern states of Brazil is relatively new and is limited the lack of genetic materials adapted to the region’s high temperatures and severe, prolonged periods of drought. The objective of this study was to assess the genetic parameters and variability and determine the genotype x environment interaction for drought tolerance in Eucalyptus clonal tests established in two environments in the municipality of Grajaú, Maranhão State, Brazil. The tests were planted in January 2011 in clayey and sandy soils in a randomized complete block design with 130 clones, one plant per plot, and 20 replicates. The studied clones showed high genetic variability for drought tolerance, with coefficients of relative variance () consistently greater than 0.8 for DBH and volume. This indicates high levels of genetic control and less influence of environmental factors on the phenotype, which allows for selection and obtaining gains through breeding. Heritability estimates were high for growth traits, with average clone heritabilities () greater than 0.85, as well as acuracies () above 0.9 for DBH and volume in clone selection. There was a simple interaction between genotype x environment for the clones under the two different soil conditions.

Examining the Relationship between Commercial Charcoal Production and Socioeconomic Variables in Nasarawa State, North-Central Nigeria

Charcoal is no longer a source of energy to only rural households but also a demanded commodity in urban areas around the world which has resulted in the commercialization of its production, particularly rural dwellers of developing countries such as Nigeria. Given the observed growing significance of charcoal in rural and urban livelihoods in Nasarawa State, this paper examined the relationship between commercial charcoal production and socioeconomic characteristics of the people involved in the activity. The study employed descriptive survey using both qualitative and quantitative data drawn from primary and secondary sources. Questionnaire was administered to 450 respondents randomly sampled from commercial charcoal producers drawn from 6 communities and 3 LGAs of Nasarawa State. Interviews and Focus Group Discussions were also conducted and the data obtained were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics in Microsoft Excel and SPSS (version 23). Results showed that commercial charcoal producers in the study area were mostly between 21 and 50 years with dominance of those between 31 and 40 (30.9%) while those above 50 years were least represented (6. 9%).There was slight dominance of women (52.4%) among the producers and the they were mostly primary (44%) and secondary (35.6%) school certificate. Majority (48.2%) had household size of 4 – 6 and more than half (52.9%) were married and earned 20,000 naira and below on monthly basis (46.4%). There is strong relationship between the socioeconomic status of the respondents and commercial charcoal production in the study area. Their socioeconomic status proved to have served significant motivation to their rising involvement in the activity. Also alternative economic activities that guarantees quick monetary rewards and is all age and gender engaging as well as requires no special skill and huge capitals for a start, should be planned for and introduced in the study area by the State Government.

Supply chain analysis of smokeless charcoal from maize residues

Open burning of agricultural residues after harvesting season is usually practiced as a disposal means for highland farms. The practice has partially contributed to the haze problem in the northern region of Southeast Asia during February to April every year. This can drastically affect human health in the long run. In this work, alternative means to utilize maize residues as a bio-renewable fuel source is explored. These maize residues can potentially be used as a raw material to substitute or partially replace wood chips in production of smokeless charcoal. Local charcoal producers in Maehongson, northern Thailand have recently looked into alternative raw materials for smokeless charcoal production since the demand for domestic and aboard has shoot up to about 6000 tons this year. Possibility of using maize residues is paramount. According to such requirement, this work focused on cost analysis of transforming maize residues into high-added-value smokeless charcoal. The analysis covered from maize harvesting and residue collection methods, logistics approach to charcoal production site, production cost and product transportation cost. Primary and secondary data collection, site survey, interviews with stakeholders and cost modeling were performed. It was found that the maize farmers could earn up to 15 USD/ton from sales of the maize residues to charcoal production plants, while the plants remain profitable.