Process Factors Research Articles

Processing factors of triadimefon and triadimenol in barley brewing based on response surface methodology

Numerous studies have focused on the effects of food-processing techniques on pesticide residues. However, it remains a challenge to ensure high-quality processing and effective pesticide removal from foods. Triadimefon (TF) is a broad-spectrum fungicide that is widely used in barley crop, and its residues are detected in its products, including beer. In this study, we investigated the dissipation kinetics of TF during fermentation mediated by two different yeast strains, Saccharomyces cerevisiae IAPPST 1401 (Y1) and CICC 1202 (Y2), and found that Y2 promoted the degradation of TF. Response surface methodology was used to optimize fermentation process variables, in order to achieve the maximum removal rate of TF and the minimum production of its corresponding metabolite, triadimenol (TN). Processing factors (PFs) were also evaluated during the optimized brewing process and were close to 1 for TF during the malting, milling, boiling, and cooling steps, but not in mashing and fermentation that were 0.19 and 0.13, respectively. TF degraded to TN during brewing, and a PF value of >1 for TN was also observed in malting and fermentation. Our analysis concluded that beers produced using the yeasts and brewing methods we investigated are safe for human consumption.

A chemometric processing-factor-based approach to the determination of the fates of five pesticides during apple processing

Food safety, especially with respect to pesticide-contaminated products, has received considerable attention in recent years. In this study, the effects of food processing steps on pesticide residues in apples were analyzed on the basis of processing factors (PFs) via a chemometric approach. Based on the PFs data, the removal efficiencies of beta-cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, tebuconazole, acetamiprid, and carbendazim were optimized using a chemometric tool equipped with a central composite design (CCD). Several enzymatic treatment parameters that affect the removal efficiency of the processing procedure were investigated using a CCD screening design. Afterward, the identified significant factors were optimized to determine the optimum removal conditions. The results showed that the residue levels of these five pesticides in commercial juice may be further decreased using a reconstitution step. Apples with pesticide residue levels lower than the maximum residue levels can be assessed, and the resulting apple juice can be consumed directly.

Dissipation pattern, safety evaluation, and generation of processing factor (PF) for pyraclostrobin and metiram residues in grapes during raisin preparation.

A residue analysis method was validated for trace level estimation of pyraclostrobin by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and metiram (analyzed as CS2) by gas chromatography mass spectrometry in grapes and raisin matrix. Dissipation of their residues and processing factors (PFs) during raisin making were evaluated through field studies with applications at single dose (SD) and double dose (DD). Residue data during drying process were best fitted to first + first-order kinetics model giving half-life ranging between 6 and 7 days for pyroclostrobin and 4 days for metiram. PFs for metiram and pyraclostrobin related to washing and oil dipping were 0.47 and 0.41, and 0.78 and 0.63 at single dose (SD) and double dose (DD), respectively. PF value of >1 for drying (1.01 and 1.31 for metiram and 1.34 and 1.10 for pyraclostrobin) indicates concentration of the residues during the drying process. The dietary exposure corresponding to average daily consumption of 0.0043 kg raisin per day on each sampling day was less than the respective maximum permissible intake at both the doses.

Changes of field incurred chlorpyrifos and its toxic metabolite residues in rice during food processing from-RAC-to-consumption.

The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of food processing on field incurred residues levels of chlorpyrifos and its metabolite 3,5,6-Trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCP) in rice. The chlorpyrifos and TCP were found to be 1.27 and 0.093 mg kg-1 in straw and 0.41 and 0.073 mg kg-1 in grain, respectively. It is observed that the sunlight for 2 hours does not decrease the chlorpyrifos and TCP residues in grain significantly. Their residues in rice were reduced by up to 50% by hulling. The cooking reduced the chlorpyrifos and TCP in rice to undetectable level (below 0.01 mg kg-1). Processing factors (PFs) of chlorpyrifos and TCP residues in rice during food processing were similar. Various factors have impacts on the fates of chlorpyrifos and TCP residues and the important steps to reduce their residues in rice were hulling and cooking. The results can contribute to assure the consumer of a safe wholesome food supply.

Residue dissipation and processing factor for dimethomorph, famoxadone and cymoxanil during raisin preparation

A method was validated for the simultaneous analysis of the residues of dimethomorph, famoxadone and cymoxanil in grape and raisin matrix by ethyl acetate based extraction and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric analysis. Field studies were conducted to evaluate the dissipation rate kinetics and processing factor (PF) for these pesticides during raisin making. Residue data during the drying process were best fitted to 1st+1st order rate kinetics with half-life ranging between 8–9days for dimethomorph, 12–13days for famoxadone and 9–10days for cymoxanil at single dose (SD) and double dose (DD), respectively. PF values calculated were 1.03 and 1.14 for dimethomorph, 1.95 and 2.09 for famoxadone, and 1.99 and 1.35 for cymoxanil at SD and DD, respectively. PF value >1 indicates concentration of the residues during raisin making. The residues of detected pesticides in market samples of raisins were devoid of any risk of acute toxicity related to dietary exposure.

Effect of household canning on the distribution and reduction of thiophanate-methyl and its metabolite carbendazim residues in tomato

Tomato in the field was sprayed with thiophanate-methyl to quantify the effect of household processing on pesticide residues. Changes in the residue levels of thiophanate-methyl and its metabolite carbendazim in tomatoes were assessed during home-canning processing. Pesticide residues in tomato were determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) after washing, peeling, homogenization, simmering, and sterilization. Results showed that washing with tap water reduced thiophanate-methyl residues by 25.0% and carbendazim residues by 13.0%. The peeling process yielded 84.2% loss in thiophanate-methyl and 87.3% loss in carbendazim from tomatoes. Peeling is thus the most effective step to remove pesticide residues from tomatoes. Homogenization, simmering, and sterilization exerted limited effects on the removal of thiophanate-methyl and carbendazim. The processing factors (PFs) of tomato samples after each step were generally less than 1; in particular, the PFs of the peeling process for thiophanate-methyl and carbendazim were 0.19 and 0.14, respectively.

Foreign Direct Investment Models, based on Country Risk for Some Post-socialist Central and Eastern European Economies

This paper identifies several econometric models of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) focused on the country risk, which can also signal other macroeconomic indicators in Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Russia and Slovak Republic, using data from World Bank and major rating agencies after 1996. The first section presents a brief literature review of FDI's theories and conceptualization. Some methodological aspects and database section provides the statistical and econometrical support of this article and the results consist in several econometric models, parameterized in the Eviews and discussions. The modelling focused on major rating agencies (Euromoney and its Country Risk - ECR, the best known European agency, using an average value of Moody's, Fitch, Standard & Poor's country risk) has proved to be competitive not only for Romania, but also for the other post-socialist Central and Eastern European countries. In order to analyze the background of the econometric modelling of FDI, during a long period of transition, two different trends can be identified: the first emphasizing the importance of R squared in the selecting factor's process for the econometric model and the second stressing the primacy of factors’ diversity or the factorial eclecticism. The findings justify the importance of FDI models, as a development factor even in times of recession, highlighting the increasing importance of the country risk signal in different countries, not only of the European Union, but even of global economy. Some final remarks of similitude and alternative constructions close this step by step thought about econometric models of FDI, for the benefit of the future econometric models and new original researches of the authors.

Dissipation kinetics, safety evaluation, and assessment of pre-harvest interval (PHI) and processing factor for kresoxim methyl residues in grape

A field dissipation study was conducted to evaluate the pre-harvest interval (PHI) and processing factor (PF) for kresoxim methyl (Ergon 44.3 SC) residues in grapes and during raisin making process at recommended dose (RD) and double the recommended dose (DRD). Kresoxim methyl residues dissipated following 1st-order kinetics with a half-life of 10 and 18 days at RD and DRD, respectively. The PHIs with respect to the European Union maximum residue limit (EU-MRL) of 1 mg kg(-1) for grapes were 13 and 30 days at RD and DRD, respectively. The degradation data during grape to raisin making process were best fitted to nonlinear 1st + 1st-order kinetics with a half-life ranging between 4 and 8 days for both shade drying and with raisin dryer at different doses. The PFs were 1.19 and 1.24 with shade drying and 1.09 and 1.10 with raisin dryer, respectively, which indicates concentration of the residues during raisin making process. The dietary exposure of kresoxim methyl on each sampling day was less than the respective maximum permissible intake both at RD and DRD. The residues of kresoxim methyl in market samples of grapes and raisins were well below the EU-MRL and were also devoid of any risk of acute toxicity related to dietary exposure.

Residue change of pyridaben in apple samples during apple cider processing

The residue change of pyridaben in apple samples during apple cider processing was systemically assessed. The pyridaben was determined by a simple gas chromatographic method using an electron capture detector after each step including washing, peeling & coring, juicing, primary filter, enzymolysis, secondary filter, sterilization, and fermentation. Results showed that peeling & coring as well as juicing process contributed the most in the reduction of pyridaben residue by 93.4%, whereas other processes had little effects on the removal of pyridaben residue. The processing factors (PFs) after each step were generally less than 1, and the PF of the overall process was 0.006, indicating that the whole process can reduce the residue of pyridaben in apple cider obviously. Pyridaben was proved to be mostly remained in apple peels. The peeling & coring process significantly reduced pyridaben by 80.3% with the PF at 0.12.

Effect of household and commercial processing on acetamiprid, azoxystrobin and methidathion residues during crude rapeseed oil production

Rape crops with residues of acetamiprid, azoxystrobin and methidathion incurred from field trials were used to evaluate the effect of household and commercial crude rapeseed oil processing on the transfer of pesticide residues. The pesticides were applied at exaggerated dosage to quantify residue levels in processed samples. The processing procedure was conducted as closely as possible to the actual conditions in practice. The conditioning step removed at least 30% of pesticides, while azoxystrobin and methidathion were concentrated by at least 15% at the single pressing step. The residue level of methidathion was concentrated with a processing factor (PF) of 1.07, while azoxystrobin and acetamiprid decreased with PFs of 0.67 and 0.04, respectively, after all processing procedures. The overall magnitudes of acetamiprid, azoxystrobin and methidathion in rapeseed oil and meal were all decreased after processing compared with the magnitude of those in raw rapeseed.

The fate of spirotetramat and its metabolite spirotetramat-enol in apple samples during apple cider processing

The fate of spirotetramat and its metabolite spirotetramat-enol in apple samples during apple cider processing was assessed. The residues were determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) after each step including washing, peeling & coring, juicing, primary filter, enzymolysis, secondary filter, sterilization, and fermentation. Results showed that the concentration of spirotetramat and spirotetramat-enol residues significantly decreased in apple cider after processing. The processing factors (PFs) of apple samples after each step were generally less than 1 except that the PF of spirotetramat-enol after sterilization was larger than 1. Spirotetramat and spirotetramat-enol were proved to be mostly retained in apple peels. The peeling & coring process caused the loss of 76.4% of spirotetramat and 62.9% of spirotetramat-enol from apples, with the processing factor of peeling & coring at 0.14 and 0.22 respectively.

Dynamics of radioactive cesium (134Cs and 137Cs) during the milling of contaminated Japanese wheat cultivars and during the cooking of udon noodles made from wheat flour.

The fate of radioactive cesium ((134)Cs plus (137)Cs) during the milling of contaminated Japanese wheat cultivars harvested in FY2011, and during the cooking of Japanese udon noodles made from the wheat flour, was investigated. Grain samples containing various radioactive cesium concentrations (36.6 to 772 Bq/kg [dry weight]) were milled using a laboratory-scale test mill to produce eight fractions: three break flours (1B, 2B, and 3B), three reduction flours (1M, 2M, and 3M), bran, and shorts. The concentrations of radioactive cesium were found to be highest in the bran fractions of all the samples tested, with 2.3- to 2.5-fold higher values than that of the whole grain. Shorts contained radioactive cesium levels similar to that of the whole grain. In contrast, radioactive cesium concentrations in other fractions were found to be less than half the concentration in whole grain. The average processing factor (PF) value calculated for patent flour (0.401 ± 0.048), made from the mixture of 1B, 2B, 1M, and 2M for human consumption, or for low-grade flour (0.467 ± 0.045), made from the mixture of 3B and 3M, was found to be less than 0.5; whereas the average PF value (2.07 ± 0.232) for feed bran (mixture of bran and shorts), which has been used mainly as livestock feed in Japan, was over 2.0. Boiling udon noodles (made from patent flour) resulted in a substantial reduction (>70 % of initial amount) of radioactive cesium. Moreover, radioactive cesium was reduced further (<10 % of the initial amount) in the subsequent rinsing process, and the PF value of boiled noodles was recorded as 0.194. These results demonstrated that patent flour containing radioactive cesium can be made safe for human consumption by adopting the standard limit for radioactive cesium in wheat grain and that radioactive cesium in udon noodles is substantially reduced by cooking.

Evaluating the fate of three HCHs in the typically agricultural environment of Liaoning Province, China

The LRBPOP model has been developed to calculate the long-term fate of α-, β-, and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) in the lower reach of Liaohe River basin, a typically agricultural environment in Liaoning Province, China. For this purpose, seasonally existent crop compartment, time-variant emission rates, and seasonal model parameters are provided in the model calculation. Besides, crop processing factor (PF) is also introduced to calculate the concentration in foodstuff produced by crop. The fate of three HCHs from 1952 to 2011 is calculated. Sensitivity analysis, uncertainty analysis, and model comparison are conducted to evaluate the model. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the LRBPOP model is most sensitive to air and water advection, HCHs applied rate, and reaction half-life in soil. Model comparison shows that absolute levels, partitioning between media, temporal trends, and ratios between HCHs reproduce well within an order of magnitude, often within a factor of 3. The predicted results indicate that the study area has been subject to severe contamination of HCHs in the early of 1980s, and the residues of three HCHs decrease largely with different vanishing rates after 1983. According to modeling results, the 97.5th percentiles of ΣHCH residues in surface water, agricultural soil, and crop food are lower than the corresponding maximum residue limits (MRLs) in 2008, 2005, and 2005, respectively.

Risk assessment of thiacloprid and its chemical decontamination on eggplant, Solanum melongena L.

Thiacloprid [(Z)-3-(6-chloro-3-pyridylmethyl)-1,3-thiazolidin-2-ylidenecyanamide; Calypso] is a systemic insecticide having persistence in the plant system. It was chosen for the management of the eggplant shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guen. Management of this insect pest is difficult because it harbours inside the shoot and fruit portions of eggplant. The persistence of thiacloprid on eggplant has not been studied in India. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) has proposed its maximum residue limit (MRL) on eggplant as 0.7 mg kg(-1), and there is a need to validate this value. Since residues were found to be above this level, five different decontamination agents were tested for the decontamination of thiacloprid from eggplant. The half-life of thiacloprid was 11.1 and 11.6 days from trials in 2 years. Safety factors such as theoretical maximum daily intake (TMDI) and maximum permissible intake (MPI) were used to arrive at a risk assessment to human health from the analytical data obtained from the field trials. Thiacloprid at the doses tested (30 and 60 g AI ha(-1)) was not effective in managing eggplant fruit borer. A waiting period of 3 days before harvest of the fruits after insecticide application and a processing factor (PF) could not ensure a sufficient margin of safety (MOS). Subjecting the data to a processing factor of 60% could not bring the residues below the proposed MRL. Thiacloprid is not found to be an appropriate and effective agent for application to eggplant. Either the proposed MRL needs to be revised or good agricultural practice involving thiacloprid for plant protection in eggplant cultivation is required.

Transfer of chlorine from the environment to agricultural foodstuffs

The factors governing chlorine transfer from Phaeozem and Greyzem soils to various important crop species (foodstuff and forage) were determined in natural conditions in the Kiev region of Ukraine. The stable chlorine concentration ratio (CR) values were the lowest in apple (0.5 ± 0.3) and strawberry (2 ± 1), higher in vegetables (5 ± 3), seeds (15 ± 7) and reached a maximum in straw (187 ± 90). The average CR values of 36Cl were estimated for the most important crops using all experimental data on 36Cl and stable chlorine transfer into plants from various soils. It was experimentally shown that boiling potatoes in water leads to an equilibrium between 36Cl specific content in the water and moisture in the cooked potato. The 36Cl processing factor (PF) for boiling various foodstuffs is equal to the ratio of water mass in the cooked foodstuff to the total water mass (in the food and the decoction). 36Cl PF for cereal flour can be estimated as 1. The 36Cl processing factor for dairy products is equal to the ratio of residual water mass in the product to initial water mass in milk. At a 36Cl specific activity in soil of 1 Bq kg −1, the estimated annual dietary 36Cl intake into human organism (adult man) is about 10 kBq. Sixty to seventy percent of the above amount will be taken in via milk and dairy products, 7–16% via meat, 14–16% via bread and bakery items and 8–12% via vegetables. The highest annual 36Cl intake, 10.7 kBq, is predicted for 1-year-old children. The expected effective doses from annual 36Cl intake are higher for younger age groups, increasing from 0.008 mSv in adults to 0.12 mSv in 1-year-old children.

05/01339 Tracer gas dispersion in ducts — study of a new compact device using arrays of sonic micro jets

The LRBPOP model has been developed to calculate the long-term fate of α-, β-, and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) in the lower reach of Liaohe River basin, a typically agricultural environment in Liaoning Province, China. For this purpose, seasonally existent crop compartment, time-variant emission rates, and seasonal model parameters are provided in the model calculation. Besides, crop processing factor (PF) is also introduced to calculate the concentration in foodstuff produced by crop. The fate of three HCHs from 1952 to 2011 is calculated. Sensitivity analysis, uncertainty analysis, and model comparison are conducted to evaluate the model. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the LRBPOP model is most sensitive to air and water advection, HCHs applied rate, and reaction half-life in soil. Model comparison shows that absolute levels, partitioning between media, temporal trends, and ratios between HCHs reproduce well within an order of magnitude, often within a factor of 3. The predicted results indicate that the study area has been subject to severe contamination of HCHs in the early of 1980s, and the residues of three HCHs decrease largely with different vanishing rates after 1983. According to modeling results, the 97.5th percentiles of ΣHCH residues in surface water, agricultural soil, and crop food are lower than the corresponding maximum residue limits (MRLs) in 2008, 2005, and 2005, respectively.

Process factors of transformer cores made from 0.18 mm, 0.23 mm, and 0.28 mm thick grain oriented steel

Regular grain oriented (RGO) silicon steels (0.18, 0.23, and 0.28 mm thick) with forsterite coating were formed into 37.2 and 63.6 kg uncut toroids, gapped toroids, and gapped, pressed rectangular cores. During the core (or toroid) manufacturing process, samples of the steel were obtained for Epstein testing at the front and back ends of each core or toroid. The cores/toroids and Epsteins were stress relief annealed at 800° for 4 hours in an 85% nitrogen - 15% hydrogen atmosphere. Additionally, gapped rectangular cores were made from forsterite-coated and stress-coated 0.18, 0.23, and 0.28 mm RGO silicon steels and 0.23 mm stress-coated high-permeability oriented (HGO) silicon steels. Process Factors (PF) were calculated by the equation: PF (%) = <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">\frac{W(core) - W(Epst)}{W(Epst)} \times 100</tex> % For pressed rectangular cores made from RGO steel the process factors improve (i.e. become more negative) with decreasing steel thickness at a given test induction. Comparing gapped rectangular cores, gapped toroids, and uncut toroids, the most negative process factors were obtained in the uncut toroid, reaching as low as about -10% for the 0.18 mm and 0.23 mm RGO steels. For pressed rectangular cores, the high permeability oriented (HGO) silicon steels experienced more positive process factors than the regular grain oriented (RGO) silicon steels. At 1.7T the 29.0Kg cores made from 0.23 mm stress-coated HGO steel had an average process factor of +8.2% while the cores made from stress-coated RGO steel had an average process factor of -1.1%. The differences in core loss seen between Epstein tests of regular grain oriented (RGO) steels and high-permeability grain oriented (HGO) steels are not as large in transformer cores. For transformer manufacturers designing to high loss evaluations (i.e., lower design inductions), RGO steels may be the steels of choice, particularly 0.18 mm thick steel at inductions below 1.5T.

Toward a structural approach to pictorial language

The challenge of the present comprehensive work was to study, from apple orchards to consumer’s plate, the influence of high- and low-temperature thermal treatments on the most frequently occurring fungicides (boscalid, captan, pyraclostrobin) and insecticides (acetamiprid, methoxyfenozide) in apples and processing factor (PF) application for more realistic dietary risk assessment in the new EFSA methodology. Dry pasteurization and canning combined with previous preliminary treatment gave PFs = 0.25–1.8 of the five active substances. Acute exposure (expressed as %ARfD) in the raw commodity was demonstrated to be 168.1% for acetamiprid in the worst case (input – highest residue) and 307.9% for boscalid in the most critical case (input - MRL), and after re-calculation for PF, decreased to 139.5% for acetamiprid in canned product and 203.2% for boscalid in pasteurized apples. These novel data may be helpful in estimating new threshold residue levels significant in food safety especially intended for children.