Social Support Processes Research Articles

The process and effect of supportive message expression and reception in online breast cancer support groups

To better understand the process and effect of social support exchanges within computer-mediated social support (CMSS) groups for breast cancer patients, this study examines (1) the dynamic interplay between emotional support giving and receiving and (2) the relative effects of emotional support giving and receiving on patients' psychosocial health outcomes. Data was collected from 177 patients who participated in online cancer support groups within the Comprehensive Health Enhancement Support System (CHESS) during the 4-month intervention. Data included (1) pretest and/or post-test survey scores of demographic, disease-related, and psychosocial factors, (2) automatically collected CHESS usage data, and (3) computer-aided content analysis of social support messages posts. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that those who receive higher levels of support from others have fewer breast cancer-related concerns (β = - 0.15, p<0.05), while those who give higher levels of support to others reframe their own problems in a positive light and adopt more positive strategies for coping (β = 0.16, p<0.05). In addition to these positive effects, partial correlation analysis indicated that these two supportive behaviors are reciprocal. We concluded that supportive exchanges of receiving and giving play positive, but different, roles in predicting psychosocial health outcomes. Moreover, emotional support giving and receiving tend to reinforce each other. Our findings help practitioners, health-care providers, and health system designers make sense of diverse social support processes among cancer patients participating within CMSS groups.

Friends' Responses to Children's Disclosure of an Achievement-Related Success: An Observational Study

This study examined social support processes in the context of positive events. The conversations of fourth-grade through sixth-grade focal children and their friends ( N = 116) were observed after focal children outperformed their friend on an achievement-related task. Changes in focal children's performance-related positive affect from prediscussion to postdiscussion were predicted from the features of these conversations. Focal children reported more positive affect when friends engaged in relatively high levels of help seeking and relatively low levels of off-task talk. Friends' responses were, in turn, predicted by friendship quality as rated by focal children and friends. Results are discussed in light of the changes in school adjustment and peer relationships that many children experience as they approach adolescence.

Powerful Youth: Determining Successful Participation in an HIV Support Group for Youth

Given the significant benefits of group-level interventions and the ongoing need for support services, education, and secondary prevention for HIV-positive youth, staff in the Risk Reduction Program within the Division of Adolescent Medicine at Childrens Hospital Los Angeles implemented a psychoeducational and social support process group for youth ages 18 to 25 living with HIV. This group, called Powerful Youth, has been successful with regard to consistent youth participation and reported satisfaction. This article provides a description of Powerful Youth and also describes the subsequent evaluative focus group that was conducted (utilizing the nominal group technique) to examine youth-identified factors that facilitate as well as hinder youth participation and satisfaction in this HIV support group. Results of this focus group regarding specific therapeutic factors (i.e., group cohesion, universality, imparting information, and instillation of hope), perceived group benefits, group challenges, barriers to attendance, and suggestions for improvement are reviewed and discussed. Specific recommendations for better serving the needs of this population through group interventions are suggested.

Community‐Level Social Support Responses in a Slow‐Motion Technological Disaster: The Case of Libby, Montana

Social support is an important resource for communities experiencing disasters. However, a disaster's nature (rapid- versus slow-onset, natural versus technological) may influence community-level responses. Disaster research on social support focuses primarily on rapid-onset natural disasters and, to a lesser extent, rapid-onset technological disasters. Little research has addressed slow-onset disasters. This study explores social support processes in Libby, MT, a community experiencing a "slow-motion technological disaster" due to widespread amphibole asbestos exposure. A comprehensive social support coding system was applied to focus-group and in-depth-interview transcripts. Results reveal that, although the community has a history of normative supportiveness during community and individual crises, that norm has been violated in the asbestos disaster context. Results are interpreted as a failure to achieve an "emergent altruistic community." Specifically, community-level conflict appears to interfere with previously established social support patterns. The observed phenomenon can be understood as the deterioration of a previously supportive community.

“You Have to be Positive.” Social Support Processes of an Online Support Group for Men Living with HIV

Over the past decade, improved treatments have helped people with AIDS enjoy a state of restored health and greater hope for long-term survival. Because of these changes, social support is an even more important resource for those battling HIV/AIDS. One source for social support is a support group, which offers social and emotional resources to meet the needs of its members. The online support group investigated in this study serves gay men with HIV/AIDS and requires that they talk only about positive aspects of life. To understand the implications this rule has for support processes, a thematic analysis was conducted to determine how this group constructs social support. Rules and resources aimed at the group goal of positivity help develop a unique speech community. Implications for social support, support groups, and the Internet are discussed.

Cancer Patients and the Provision of Informational Social Support

Research into the impact of social support on health-care patients has focused on the benefits of receiving social support. Although recipients benefit from social support, there are also potential benefits to the providers of social support that have gone relatively unexplored. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationship between the reception and provision of informational social support by cancer patients. Based on the work of Gouldner (1960), this investigation attempts to examine the role reciprocity plays within the social support process. The norm of reciprocity is conceptualized as a generalized moral belief rather than as a simple pattern of exchange between caregivers and care receivers. Use of reciprocity as a generalized moral belief instead of a pattern of behavioral exchange between providers and recipients of social support allows a more thorough integration theoretically and more methodical examination of the role the relationship between providers and recipients plays in this process. Specifically, this investigation employs the notion of optimal matching as part of the mechanism underlying the satisfactions derived from informational social support. The results of the logistic regression analyses suggest that reciprocity is a viable explanation of the mechanism underlying the desire to provide social support to others among cancer patients and among adults who have never been diagnosed with cancer. This relationship between the reception and the provision of informational social support remains even after controlling for age, education, gender, race, social integration, and cancer diagnosis. Implications for the social support literature are discussed.

An appraisal of athlete development models through citation network analysis

Background and purpose A number of models have been proposed to help explain how athletes develop in sport. However, minimal research has attempted to examine the prominence and interconnectivity of the athlete development models in the literature. The purpose of the present study was to synthesize and evaluate the interconnectedness of the English-language literature that serve as the foundation for athlete developmental models in sport using a novel research synthesis approach to sport psychology –citation network analysis. Unlike other research synthesis techniques, citation network analysis reveals the cognitive structure and interconnectedness of a field of study [Moore, S., Shiell, P., Hawe, P., & Haines, V.A. (2005). The privileging of communicatarian ideas: citation practices and the translation of social capital into public health research. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 1330–1337.]. Methods Based upon seven criteria, seven articles representing models of athlete development in sport were selected as the base of the article population. All peer-reviewed, English journal articles that cite at least one of these seven model articles were compiled, resulting in a total population of 75 articles. From this article population a network of inter-citations was created. Results and conclusions Analysis of the total network revealed the presence of two separate factions working in relative isolation from one another. Articles in the first faction were centered around the Stambulova [(1994). Developmental sports career investigations in Russia: a post-perestroika analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 8, 221–237.] and Wylleman, Alfermann, and Lavallee [(2004). Career transitions in sport: European perspectives. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5, 7–20.] model articles while the second faction contained five other model articles [Abbott, A., & Collins, D. (2004). Eliminating the dichotomy between theory and practice in talent identification and development: considering the role of psychology. Journal of Sport Sciences, 22, 395–408; Bailey, R., & Morley, D. (2006). Towards a model of talent development in physical education. Sport, Education and Society, 11, 211–230; Côté, J. (1999). The influence of the family in the development of talent in sport. The Sport Psychologist, 13, 395-417; Durand-Bush, N. & Salmela, J. H. (2002). The development and maintenance of expert athletic performance: perceptions of world and olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 154–171; Morgan, T. & Giacobbi, P. R., Jr. (2006). Toward two grounded theories of the talent development and social support process of highly successful collegiate athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 20, 295–313.)]. The results offer a comprehensive representation of how researchers use existing models and articles to unravel the complexity of athlete development in sport.

The Social Network Map as an Instrument for Identifying Social Relations in Deaf Research and Practice

Social support has shown itself to be an important factor in many areas in regard to mental health development and conservation. Numerous empirical findings also document its significance in various areas of research into deafness. Questionnaires are only one means of gathering information when we are trying to gain access to the social networks of deaf and hard of hearing people, their families, and relatives. The social network map is an approach that provides qualitative access to insights into social relationships and has proven, in conjunction with a qualitative interview, to be a useful tool in allowing a more detailed description and in-depth understanding of the processes of both social support and stress. The special strength of the social network map lies in the combination of visualizing social relationships and reflecting them in an interpersonal dialogue. This article describes how to go about creating a network map and illustrates this with an example of a mother of a multi-handicapped, deaf child. It concludes with a discussion of the opportunities that the use of a social network map offers as well as its potential limitations.

Challenges in conceptualizing social support

Although research on social support has generated findings that are key to the study of social and personal relationships, scholars have yet to deal with a number of conceptual issues that affect how social support is defined and measured. Research on hurt feelings provides some interesting insights concerning the conceptualization of support. Based on this research, as well as a review of the literature on social support, the current article describes several issues that scholars ought to consider as they conceptualize, evaluate, and study social support processes.

Personnes âgées dépendantes en attente d’entrée en EHPAD depuis un service hospitalier : étude prospective sur la communauté urbaine de Strasbourg, France

Objectives Our aim was to estimate the number of non-satisfied instutionalization requests for inpatients and to describe the strategies elaborated to compensate for the waiting time. Methods This prospective follow-up study concerning all requests for institution admission for inpatients aged 75 years or older hospitalized in acute care and rehabilitation wards. Descriptive data were gathered throughout the social support process conducted during the hospitalization. A three months follow-up was conducted. Results Among 5200 hospitalizations, a social support process was initiated for 270 patients aged 75 years and over. Two thirds of the sample were women ( n = 163). Mean age was 82 years. Fifty-two percent of the subjects met the criteria for iso-resource grades (IRG) 1 to 2 and 90% in IRG 1 to 4. The mean length of hospitalized stay (MLOS) was 56.8 ± 10.2 days; the MLOS of unjustified stay of 23.5 ± 5.6 ( n = 222). The average time before the social worker was informed of the patient's situation was 13.6 ± 2.0 days; in addition, the time required to establish the administrative documents necessary for initiation of the social support progress was 15.0 ± 1.8. The principal reasons for social support were physical dependence (77%), mental dependence (60%), insufficient family support (36%) and/or disease progression (21%). At three months, 104 patients were institutionalized, 128 were still on institution waiting list (in hospital: 48%; at home: 16%) and 38 had died (14%). The estimated annual institutional deficit for disabled elderly people was 512 beds. Conclusion In light of demographical perspectives, an overall re-organization of the geriatric network is absolutely necessary. A simple increase in the capacity to fulfil the institutional beds deficit would be insufficient.

Social support from family and friends as a buffer of low spousal support among mothers of critically ill children: A multilevel modeling approach.

To investigate whether social support from family and friends (family/friend support) attenuated ("buffered") adverse effects of having low spouse support (spousal support) among mothers of children undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). One hundred sixty-three married mothers who were their child's primary caregiver during treatment completed assessments during the child's hospitalization for HSCT and 3-, 6-, and 12-months post-HSCT. Family/friend support and spousal support were assessed during hospitalization. Maternal physical and mental health-related functioning (the main outcome measures) were assessed at all timepoints. Multilevel modeling was used to analyze trajectories of maternal functioning. Findings indicated that mothers with low spousal support and low family/friend support demonstrated the worst functioning across all timepoints. Mothers with low spousal support and high family/friend support demonstrated significantly better functioning, supporting the hypothesized buffering effect. Their functioning compared to the functioning of mothers with high spousal support. Moreover, mothers with high family/friend support demonstrated trajectories of physical health-related functioning that were more stable than the trajectories of mothers with low family/friend support. These findings have clinical implications in addition to advancing knowledge of social support processes among couples coping with the shared stressor of a child's life-threatening illness and treatment.

Coping Style as a Psychological Resource of Grateful People

We examined whether gratitude was correlated with distinct coping styles, and whether coping styles mediated the relationship between gratitude and well–being. Participants (n = 236) completed measures of coping styles, dispositional gratitude, and measures of well–being. Gratitude correlated positively with seeking both emotional and instrumental social support, positive reinterpretation and growth, active coping, and planning. Gratitude correlated negatively with behavioural disengagement, self–blame, substance use, and denial. Coping styles mediated up to 51% of the relationship between gratitude and stress, but did not substantially mediate the relationship between gratitude and either happiness, depression, or satisfaction with life. We suggest that different mechanisms relate gratitude to separate aspects of well–being. Further research is indicated into the role of gratitude in social support processes, and in growth following adversity.

Social Support Promoting Health in Older Women

ABSTRACT Given the aging of women and their increased risk for health problems, it is important to explicate factors that may foster health promotion. While social support has been a concept of interest in predicting health promotion in women, the concept has been inconsistently defined and poorly explicated. A qualitative study was conducted to describe the types and processes of social support for health promotion in older women. Focus group interviews with 51 women, aged 55–93, were held. Data were analyzed using open coding to categorize data with attention to consistency and variance. Data explicated aspects of social support unique to health promotion in community-dwelling older women. Broad categories identified included connectedness and collectivism. Findings validate existing conceptualizations and provide an expanded perspective of social support by demonstrating aspects of support unique to the social context of older, community-dwelling women. Findings also provide a basis for development of socially relevant interventions designed to promote health and optimize health outcomes in older women.

Age and social support perception in Eastern Europe: Social change and support in four rapidly changing countries

Despite a growing literature on social support processes across the life-span, few studies have examined support perceptions in societies undergoing rapid social transition. This study reports data on age, support and mental health from 2672 participants in four former Soviet nations. Results suggest a small but significant decline in overall support across age (r = -.12), with this slope significantly influenced by nationality and gender. Mental health also declines with age (r = -.15), with tangible support having the greatest mediational effect on the age-mental health relationship. These findings are discussed in the light of the continuing economic and social strains influencing the inhabitants of this region.

Social support, appraisals, and coping as predictors of depression in congestive heart failure patients

Depression is a serious and pervasive concomitant of congestive heart failure (CHF). The aim of the present study was to expand on Holahan et al.'s model of social support and active coping as determinants of depression in individuals with cardiac illness. We examined social support, appraisals, and coping as subsequent predictors of depression in a sample of 163 community-dwelling individuals with diagnosed CHF. The results of structural equation analyses indicated that the satisfaction with social support and percentage of active coping employed were prospectively related to lower levels of depression, and that appraisals of one's illness as threatening were a strong predictor of higher levels of depression. These findings suggest that focusing on social support and coping processes may be a useful avenue for alleviating depression in those living with CHF.

Effects of Sociodemographic Characteristics, Illness Process, and Social Support on the Levels of Perceived Quality of Life in Veterans

Quality of life is a broad, complex, multidimensional concept incorporating psychological, sociopsychological, economic, philosophical, social, cultural, and spiritual dimensions. As accompanying or even constituting the concept of quality life, social support (empathic, informational, instrumental, and reassurance support) has not been studied. This study sought to determine the effects of sociodemographic characteristics, illness process, and type of social support on the quality of life levels of veterans hospitalized in a rehabilitation center. Seventy-nine veterans were involved in the study. None of the sociodemographic characteristics of the veterans correlated with the quality of life of the veterans except housing conditions. The perceived quality of life scores of the veterans who needed psychological help were lower than those of their counterparts (p < 0.01). The quality of life scores of the veterans were not different from those of the average Turkish population, but veterans who had not received any type of social support had lower quality of life scores (3.74 vs. 4.70). Veterans who had empathic, informational, and reassurance social support had higher quality of life scores than did those who did not have these types of social support. Having tangible social support did not change the quality of life scores. Our findings indicate that social support has a greater impact on the perceived quality of life than sociodemographic and medical factors among the veterans.

Construct validity of the social support survey in sport

Objectives Richman, J. M., Rosenfeld, L. B., & Hardy's, C. J. [(1993). The Social Support Survey: A validation of a clinical measure of the social support process. Research on Social Work Practice, 3, 288–311] model of social support is increasingly used as a framework for researching social support in sport, particularly in relation to sports injury. The Social Support Survey (SSS) is based upon this model. Through confirmatory factor analyses of the SSS, Rees, T., Hardy, L., Ingledew, D. K., & Evans, L. [(2000). Examination of the validity of the social support survey using confirmatory factor analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71, 322–330] questioned the construct validity of the SSS and the model it is based upon. This study further addresses the construct validity of the SSS. Design Relationships between 5 of the SSS dimensions and a set of items with known relevance to sport were examined using structural equation modelling. Methods College athletes ( n = 320 : 170 males, 150 females), mean age 19.94 (SD 2.23 years), ranging in ability from college level to international level, completed the 5 SSS dimension subscales and items representing 3 social support dimensions from Rees, T., & Hardy, L. [(2000). An investigation of the social support experiences of high-level sports performers. The Sport Psychologist, 14, 327–347]. Results SSS listening support ( β=.39, p < . 05 ) and SSS emotional support ( β=.58, p < . 05 ) explained 74% of the variance in the Rees and Hardy (2000) emotional support dimension. SSS task appreciation ( β=.54, p < . 05 ) and SSS task challenge ( β=.40, p < . 05 ) explained 68% of the variance in the Rees and Hardy esteem support dimension. SSS personal assistance ( β=.43, p < . 05 ) explained 18% of the variance in the Rees and Hardy tangible support dimension. Conclusions These results provide some evidence of the construct validity of 5 of the SSS content factors in sport.

Social Support Processes and the Adaptation of Individuals With Chronic Disabilities

In a qualitative study examining turning points in life, 15 adults with chronic disabilities (cerebral palsy, spina bifida, or attention deficit disorder) provided information about the nature and meaning of their social support experiences. The study revealed three types of psychological support linked to self-perceptions and enabling beliefs: (a) emotional support (valuing and acceptance leading to perceptions of "being believed in" and a sense of self-esteem), (b) instrumental support (guidance and provision of strategies leading to self-efficacy), and (c) cognitive support (affirmation, confirmation, and new perspectives leading to coherence in self-concept and worldview). The findings have important implications for service delivery with respect to understanding client needs for different kinds of support, especially at periods of transition, and for providing optimal experiences and creating supportive environments. In particular, the role of cognitive support deserves more attention in understanding the adaptation of individuals with chronic disabilities.

Toward Two Grounded Theories of the Talent Development and Social Support Process of Highly Successful Collegiate Athletes

The purpose of this study was to utilize multiple perspectives to describe the major influences and experiences during the development of highly talented collegiate athletes. Eight NCAA Division I collegiate athletes, 12 parents, and 6 coaches participated in this study. In-depth semi-structured interviews analyzed through grounded theory analytic procedures (Strauss &amp; Corbin, 1998) were used. Overall, it was ascertained that a favorable interaction between perceived genetic dispositions, practice, situational factors, and mental characteristics facilitated and nurtured the participants’ talent development. The importance of social support for overcoming adversity was a salient theme and should be addressed by sport psychology consultants and coaches.

The need for substance abuse after-care: Longitudinal analysis of Oxford House

Aims There is a need to explore the processes of social support and self-efficacy change over time among individuals in recovery homes, and to assess the extent to which residents remain abstinent, obtain and maintain employment, refrain from criminal activity, and utilize health care systems both while within the and after leaving such settings. Design Residents were recruited and interviewed at an initial baseline phase and then re-interviewed at three subsequent 4-month intervals. Setting Oxford Houses are recovery home residences for individuals with substance abuse and dependence problems who seek a supportive, democratic, mutual-help setting. Participants A national US sample of Oxford House residents ( n = 897: 604 men, 293 women). Measurements Information was gathered on abstinence, social support, self-efficacy, employment, criminal history, and medical care utilization. Findings Change in cumulative abstinence was predicted by support for alcohol use, abstinence self-efficacy, and length of residency in OH (i.e., less than versus ≥ 6 months), even after controlling for initial time spent in OH. Conclusions Results suggest that receiving abstinence support, guidance, and information from recovery home members committed to the goal of long-term sobriety may enhance residents' abstinence self-efficacy and enable persons recovering from alcohol and other drug addiction to reduce the probability of a relapse.