Securitization Process Research Articles

Retos y oportunidades en materia de ciberseguridad de América Latina frente al contexto global de ciberamenazas a la seguridad nacional y política exterior

La presente investigación parte de la hipótesis que este estudio establece que la región latinoamericana posee fuertes carencias en el desarrollo de una política nacional de ciberseguridad y en la construcción de capacidades para enfrentar los riesgos y amenazas provenientes del ciberespacio en dimensiones que afectan la seguridad nacional y política exterior. De esta forma, la investigación se compone de seis partes, en la primera se presentan los enfoques teóricos del neorrealismo, constructivismo y teoría de la guerra, que establecen los vínculos entre teorías de las relaciones internacionales, seguridad nacional y ciberseguridad. En el segundo apartado se aborda el proceso de securitización de Internet en la última década del siglo XX y la primera del siglo XXI. En la tercera parte, se presenta el contexto de ciberamenazas a nivel global y su comparativo con la situación de América Latina. Después, se analiza el estado actual de cibercapacidades de la región, con base a mediciones como el Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) y el National Cyber Security Index (NSCI), con el fin de hacer un ejercicio comparativo entre América Latina y otras regiones del mundo. En la quinta parte se analizan, a nivel individual, los esfuerzos de los países de América Latina en el desarrollo de una política nacional de ciberseguridad y construcción de cibercapacidades con base en los informes sobre la materia de la Organización de los Estados Americanos (OEA) y el Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID), así como los indicadores de la metodología del NCSI. Por último, se presentan unas breves conclusiones en el que se exaltan las áreas de oportunidad y mejora para la región latinoamericana en la construcción de una política de ciberseguridad y construcción de cibercapacidades.

Humanitarianism, securitization, and containment in Jordan's Za'atari Refugee Camp.

Through a case study on Za'atari, the largest Syrian refugee camp in Jordan, this paper critically explores a contemporary example of intersection between local and global humanitarian and securitization processes in refugee governance. The paper argues that Syrian refugees have been subjected to humanitarian care and securitized treatment, with their construction in terms of potential threat to State security interests spiking in correlation with insecurities over the expansion of the "Islamic State" (IS). The paper tracks the suit of measures implemented by the host Jordanian State, with the support of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), to produce docile refugee subjects of "humanitarian government" in a closed camp. It notes how the UNHCR invariably augments and extends the remit of Jordanian State power at the expense of refugee rights, in the name of ensuring refugee and aid worker security and the effectiveness of the aid operation. The camp plays a critical role in a performative politics of containment targeting local and global audiences.

Counterterrorism policies in the Middle East and North Africa: A regional perspective

AbstractThe 9/11 attacks and the “War on Terror” brought terrorism and counterterrorism to the forefront of politics. Today, terrorism remains one of the most serious threats to national and international security. Yet, amid the surge of scholarly and policy interest in terrorism and counterterrorism, the literature on counterterrorism policies and strategies in the Middle East at the local and regional levels is sparse, limited and predominantly Western.The experience of political terrorism and violence in the Middle East throughout the 1980s and 1990s, which led to the introduction of a securitization process and the adoption of counterterrorism measures in the region long before the 9/11 attacks, offers important lessons. This paper takes its point of departure from the definitional conundrum of the concepts of “terrorism” and “(national) security” within the Middle East context. It examines the evolution of the securitization process in the Middle East in response to terrorism, with reference to the experiences of countries in the region. As it analyzes the different counterterrorism models and methods employed, it argues that counterterrorism strategies in much of the Middle East have not been effective and have at times been counterproductive.

The (in)distinction between remand imprisonment and prison sentence: Revisiting pre-trial detention within Turkish youth justice system

Around 3.3 million people worldwide are in pretrial detention, and 14 million people are held in such detention per year. Despite the high numbers, remand imprisonment has received little attention in penal theories. Over the past couple of decades, Turkey has constructed high-security remand prisons for young pretrial detainees, indicating a transition towards securitization in the form of remand imprisonment. In these prisons, the element of ‘space’ and spatial control has taken precedence, while ‘labour/discipline’ and ‘time’ have lost significance, reflecting the securitization process. Research conducted in juvenile courts and prisons in 2014–2015 demonstrates how marginalized youth end up in remand prisons that have become social control facilities. Remand imprisonment is interpreted as a crime control and deterrence mechanism by both the prisoners and legal practitioners, and attains roles in crime control that correspond to the residual welfare regime.

ISLAMIC EXTREMISM AND TERRORISM IN CENTRAL ASIA: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

The paper examines the process of securitization of Islam in Central Asia within three sectors, namely, military, political and societal. It argues that securitization is not merely a speech act, it also is an associated political process that affects the adoption of laws related to traditions, freedom of conscience, religious associations, public organizations, political parties and security policy. The article presents the methods that were used to construe various notions of Islam as a threat. The prerequisites of this policy are deconstructed and analyzed, along with its consequences for the political system and the reproduction of authoritarianism in the states under scrutiny. The theory of securitization is presented in the beginning of the article. The second part examines the military sphere, where Islamic radicalism is portrayed as a threat to the security of the state, population, territorial integrity and military potential. The next part examines the political sphere, where Islamic radicalism is said to threaten the sovereignty of the state, its institutions, and the stability and sustainability of the social order. The final part of the paper focuses on the discourse and practice within the societal sector, which touches upon issues in which Islamic radicalism threatens collective identity, language, and culture.

Desired freight and undesired migrants: Security and market forces at internal EU borders

Based on a comparison between two intra-EU border securitization processes in the aftermath of the so-called EU “refugee crisis” of 2015, this article aims to contribute to literature on migration control by stressing the role that market-security dynamics play in state borderwork. The comparison between the French/Italian and the Austrian/Italian borders suggests that the containment of undesired mobility may be better understood in light of economic processes (shared commercial interests between states and the interests of the security industry) whose dimensions are easily quantifiable and comparable but rarely taken into account in research on borders and migration. The analysis highlights that these economic processes, together with other historical, political, social and geomorphological factors, are crucial to explain the emergence of different “local border control regimes” in terms of police cooperation, states’ sovereignty practices and the reconfiguration of migratory routes. As an additional argument, the article brings out the nuances of the EU’s uneven core-periphery dynamics with respect to migration management. Indeed, it shows the active role of peripheral countries, such as Italy, in negotiating, contesting, or actively assuming their role of migration “gatekeepers”.

Populism and Securitization: The Corrosion of Elite Security Authority in a US–Mexico Border State

AbstractPopulists have often seemed influential in the securitization of migration, in great part through pressuring non-populist governing elites into “mainstreaming” more hardline immigration positions. This article asks why, given the presumption in securitization literatures that elite insiders possess strong authority in defining security, non-populist governing elites often in fact cede ground to populist challengers who paint immigration as a threat. Securitization and political science literatures paint very different pictures of elite–challenger dynamics, but populist and securitization claims possess key ideational similarities, in relation to the holism and autonomy of the political community, and the apoliticism of pursuing purportedly self-evident goals. However, populism articulates securitarian concepts through a moralized anti-elitism that impugns elite authority, portraying governing elites as corruptly inert toward threats facing “the people.” This article explores how this ideational relationship may affect securitization processes through a process-tracing study of the populist radical right's successful pressuring of governing elites to securitize migration in the US state of Arizona. There, populists’ moralized accusations of corrupt elite inaction toward urgent security threats moved governing elites to adopt positions intended to demonstrate responsiveness to public border-security anxieties, thereby inscribing securitization. Taking an “ideational” view of both concepts shows how they can form a politically influential account of “common sense.” By undermining elite security authority—thus inverting the typically theorized power dynamics of securitization—populism may open new pathways for securitized policies to emerge.

Conceptualizing and Framing Economic Security?: The Case of 30 Year Russian-Korean Security Relations Tested

This article examines Korean-Russian relations from a new dimension of security, economic security. This is an important study of an understudied relationship in East Asia that has significant implications for the security, energy and other economic activities of the region. The objective of this article is to broaden the concept of security, conceptualize the notion of economic security and apply it to the case of bilateral relations between Moscow and Seoul. This article focuses on the securitization process of international political issues and security-building processes between two nations. Specifically, this study intends to specifically look at the following four aspects of security: nation states’ perceptions of security, securitization, the security-building process, and potential security threats. In this respect, the article begins by redefining the definition of security and economic security and applying their relevance to the Russian-South Korean bilateral relations. And then the article explores specific elements of economic security, including energy, transportation linkage, and fishery cooperation since these three elements represent core elements of economic security cooperation between two countries.

Sekuritisasi China Fine Dust oleh Pemerintah Korea Selatan terhadap Tiongkok

China Fine Dust issue has emerged in 2013 and increase in 2014 so that South Korea suffered from the impact. Meanwhile, China as a contributor of the haze refuses to take responsibility for tackling this issue, so that South Korea must securitize. This study aims to describe the process of securitization of China Fine Dust issue carried out by South Korea to China by using the concept of securitization by Barry Buzan as an analytical framework. The research method used is a qualitative method with a descriptive approach. The data used in this research was collected through literature study. The securitization process carried out by the South Korean Government against China began with South Korea carrying out a scientific agenda to identify a threat with China's initial involvement of 48%. Then political agenda, which are three points; influencing the public to gain support, forming a domestic emergency policy, holding a bilateral meeting to convince China to work together because domestic actions are not enough yet. The continuation of political management shows that the agenda of securitization carried out by South Korea made China accept the issue as a threat and agreed to cooperate in tackling the haze issue by releasing several projects.

SECURITIZATION OF COVID-19 AND STATE’S RESPONSE TO MITIGATE PANDEMIC THREAT

Novel Coronavirus, commonly known as Covid-19, is a new type of viral species that has been discovered in China during November 2019. As of recent, Covid-19 has been a threat and a threat to the humans. Based on research performed by scientists, the coronavirus is a type of virus that can be transmitted to humans from wild animals. The first person infected with a virus is expected to appear in the city of Wuhan, China. Initially, Covid-19 was only endemic. Given the fact that so many people are infected with this virus, the WHO declared it a global pandemic. The Covid-19 phenomenon has gained prominence despite the danger that it presents to human life. The aim of this article is to analyze Covid-19 in the perspective of security studies. The author uses securitization concept to describe the Covid-19 phenomenon. The author used qualitative analysis methods. The author claims that the Covid-19 securitization process encourages state actors to define it as one of threat that needs to be overcame. Owing to variations in the securitization process between countries, the results are different among states. However, at one point, nation-state treated Covid-19 as a challenge to be solved. In the end, state actors need to strengthen their capabilities to stop the pandemic threat's pace.

Dialog Insekuritas Pangan Berdasarkan Kajian Keamanan Internasional: Gugatan Pendekatan Kritis Terhadap Pendekatan Arus-Utama

This article is a theoretical review based on idea comparisons in exploring various perspectives on food insecurity. Overall, the authors focus on the discussion of food insecurity, in the form of hunger which is considered to have several limitations. The narrative or discursive of food security and food sovereignty contradicts one another. Even so, the two are not as oppositional concepts, but as interrelated concepts, especially covering efforts to overcome hunger which includes access, distribution, security and equality. Meanwhile, the approach to national security based on realism and human security based on the Copenhagen School has significant differences. However, both have problems in positioning hunger as a security issue. Realism that relies on the state-centric places dealing with hunger is the concentration of government activities in ensuring national interests, so that the existing policies are on how the food availability can be fulfilled or surplus. Subsequently, the human security perspective looks at the hunger issue faced by humans so that a securitization process is needed that is carried out by securitization agency. It can be seen here that actions to overcome fundamental problems are only the responsibility of the elite governments, while the voices of the interests of individuals experiencing hunger are neglected. Thus, a critical security approach appears to mediate the above limitations. This perspective offers that the issue of hunger should be reframed as this security problem is a structural problem. Furthermore, this approach proposes the definition of food security in vulnerable populations from the structural violence of hunger.

Securitization in the Philippines’ Drug War

Since his inauguration in late June 2016, Duterte has adopted “shoot-to-kill” policy for suspected criminals and drug addicts. Despite public support, the policy received growing international backlash over extra-judicial killing and mass slaughter of youth, mainly the urban poor communities. This paper attempts to analyze the process of securitization waged by President Duterte to construct a state of emergency of drugs so that extraordinary yet outrageous measures can be justified by using the Copenhagen School’s securitization concept developed by Buzan, Waever, and Wilde (1998). This paper argues that President Duterte’s speech acts and politicization of threats successfully build public support of harsher law enforcement on drug-related crime. Furthermore, the paper also connects the dot between the securitization of drugs as Duterte’s political weapon and the disproportionate impact it has on the minority poor and vulnerable children. Using the critical application of securitization theory developed by Charett (2009), the paper concludes that the asymmetrical power relations will lead to securitizing actor maintaining its power in the expense of oppressing the marginalized voice, especially the minority poor and children population, thus de-securitization model (Hansen, 2012) is more effective in dealing drug-related crimes in the Philippines.

In the shadow of Canadian imperialism? Strategic human rights litigation in Guatemala (2009–2019)

ABSTRACT Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, mining industries in post-conflict environments led to the development of an abundance of literature on Canadian imperialism and its negative impact on human rights, especially in Guatemala. However, little knowledge exists on Canada’s support of strategic human rights litigation (SHRL) projects for the most vulnerable groups affected by the Guatemalan armed conflict and extractive activities. This article explores this contradictory commitment to SHRL through a case-study of Canada’s support of the rule of law in post-conflict Guatemala. This article argues that Canada’s participation in Guatemala’s securitisation processes demonstrates Canadian economic and security objectives in the extractive sector as well as self-affirmation goals among donors. Based on field interviews and Access to Information requests, this article provides theoretical and empirical insights on SHRL projects in post-conflict countries with extractive resources.

Rights to the rescue? The promotion of Indigenous women's political-electoral rights and the rise of the Mexican security state

This article demonstrates how the promotion of Indigenous women's political-electoral rights in Mexico has furthered a conservative agenda of state securitization. To do so, it presents a discourse analysis of national media reports focused on the story of Eufrosina Cruz, a Zapotec woman who became the figurehead for state-led initiatives to promote Indigenous women's rights. It argues that a colonial rescue narrative constructed through Cruz's figure helped generate new hegemonic discourses of gendered indigeneity that portrayed Indigenous peoples' alternative political practices and spaces as anti-democratic and illegal. In an era where advancements in party democracy were linked to processes of state securitization, these categorizations helped justify new forms of state intervention into Indigenous peoples' lives. By exploring how rights initiatives were discursively constructed through racialized, spatialized and gendered constructions of indigeneity, this article contributes to a critical geography of indigeneity within political geography.

Securitisation of space and time

This article introduces the concept of securitisation for early modern studies. It identifies security studies� implicit state-centric approach as one of the main culprits for early modern scholars� hesitance to use the concept and argues that, for historians, there is a twofold problem with placing the state at the centre of research. The problem pertains to how scholars have dealt with the interactions between time and space when approaching the state. First, the definition of state is space- and time-centred; it is built to accommodate the system of 19th- and 20th-century Europe, with the idea of the sovereign state at its centre. To fit the early modern period, we need to acknowledge the role of other entities and varieties in securitisation processes. Second, the concept of the state needs to be problematised by acknowledging the changing nature of its space�that is, by temporalising its spatiality. The second part of the text focuses on two interconnected areas especially prone to securitisation, where historians have much to offer those studying securitisation processes: migration and border making. Questions of how to control the future and how to secure it are most often translated into a spatial problem: as long as the border is secure, change will not enter. By focusing on local responses to perceived security threats and studying the effects that measures taken had on local communities, historians can seek not only to understand the underlying assumptions made about the future by our objects of investigation, but also to gain considerable insight into de-securitisation processes.

The Copenhagen School in South America: the (de)securitization of UNASUR (2008-2017)

This paper examines the most significant processes of securitization and desecuritization occurring at the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) from its inception in 2008 until 2017, when UNASUR began to experience a gridlock. The analysis begins with the hypotheses of desecuritization of armed conflict among the South American countries, as well as their approach to problems drug-related. To this end, the paper is based on a critical theory of security with focus on securitization, and offers an expanded and/or discursive conception of security that goes beyond the military dimension.

Critical Perspective on Salafism in the Netherlands

The study establishes how Salafism has been able to influence Dutch Muslim communities in the current period. Through exploratory research, fifteen ‘expert’ interviews with members from the Dutch Muslim community were conducted. They indicated several shortcomings due to having to endure interventionistic policies that have thus far failed to curb the rise in Salafist recruitment. The analysis also reveals a range of misconceptions currently held regarding the Salafism phenomenon. We argue that statements made by public political figures and the varying definitions used within governmental publications and policy-decisions have caused a disproportionate focus placed upon ordinary Dutch Muslims. As a consequence, it enforces an Islamophobic perspective that diminishes the ability of Dutch Muslims to cooperate with the security services. The process of securitizing Salafism as a whole has led to the Dutch Muslim community to self-censor and self-isolate while experiencing restricted freedom of religion. The process of securitisation reframes the current understanding of Salafism as a greater societal threat.

ENCUADRES SOBRE LA GUERRA EN AFGANISTÁN A TRAVÉS DE LOS TITULARES DE PRENSA ESPAÑOLES: UN ANÁLISIS CON ALGORITMOS SUPERVISADOS

This article studies the presence of two frames, security and human drama, in the Spanish press, specifically in 10 newspapers, during the development of the Resolute Support Mission (2015-2020). Through computational research techniques, Support Vector Machines (SVM), 3,890 headlines have been analyzed. The article concludes that the Spanish press has undergone a process of securitization strongly influenced by the national context of Afghanistan and internationally.

СЕК’ЮРИТИЗАЦІЯ ФІНАНСОВИХ АКТИВІВ: СУТНІСТЬ ТА ПРИЧИНИ ПОШИРЕННЯ В ЕКОНОМІЧНИХ ПРОЦЕСАХ

Financial innovations have been and remain an integral part of the economic development of countries in recent dec-ades. The need for effective tools and technologies that would allow hedging, managing the market risks, which ultimately affected rapid emergence of new financial instruments, trading mechanisms and technologies has significantly increased. Their use accelerates new financial relationships that can solve these problems.The main purpose of the article is to deepen theoretical provisions of the securitization process of financial assets, fea-tures and reasons for its dissemination in economic processes.There are different approaches to determining the essence of securitization of financial assets. The securitization in the narrow sense has two types –securitization of assets (bonds issue on the basis of mortgage or consumer loans, debts on cred-it cards) and securitization of liabilities (issuing to depositors of bonds of the domestic state currency loan or bank billsin-stead of funds). It has been proved that securitization of assets has been the most widespread. The author’s interpretation of the securitization of financial assets as an innovative form of financing, which involves obtaining profits by financial institu-tions from the sale of a pool of financial assets generating stable cash flow, specially created legal entity that will issue secu-rities with new properties and forms of collateral has been submitted. With the financial market development, new trends, tools and processes appear that allow to activate the market, strengthen financial capabilities of market participants, in-crease their liquidity. The main trends in the financial market development are globalization and dissemination. There are several approaches to explaining the occurrence of securitization. Most often, its occurrence is explained as the activities of companies in response to state regulation in the field of banking.

COVID-19, SECURITIZATION, AND TERRORISM: NATIONAL SECURITY CHANGE MANAGEMENT DILEMMA

<p>The Corona Virus Disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic is spreading globally, including in Indonesia, with a significant impact not only in limited a sphere of the threat to public health. The Covid-19 pandemic shaped social phenomenon followed by the changes in the social order of life into the securitization process with multi-dimensional impacts. Due to restrictions extensively, society's liability realities become an opening fissure for terrorist groups to persist in their actions. This rational context raises awareness for the State as State-actor in the security realm to generate security for its people. This paper aims to analyze how the expansion of the Covid-19 outbreak with multi-dimensional impacts in the securitization approach, counting terrorism expansion, and how the State dealing with as a State-actor. Using a qualitative approach, the authors expound on national security and change management theory, illustrating how the Government is a state-actor within its strategy. In responding to the emerging constellation, there are various dynamic challenges for the Government, within its central powers and regional authorities, toward change management dilemmas in the context of national security. At the end of the discussion, it portrays the urgency of responding to the strategic changes in the framework of change management under the top leader's forceful strategic leaderships in integrating all components of the nation.</p>