Mummification Process Research Articles

Preservation of cell structures in a medieval infant brain: A paleohistological, paleogenetic, radiological and physico-chemical study

Cerebral tissues from archaeological human remains are extremely rare findings. Hereby, we report a multidisciplinary study of a unique case of a left cerebral hemisphere from a 13th century AD child, found in north-western France. The cerebral tissue–reduced by ca. 80% of its original weight–had been fixed in formalin since its discovery. However, it fully retained its gross anatomical characteristics such as sulci, and gyri; the frontal, temporal and occipital lobe as well as grey and white matter could be readily recognised. Neuronal remains near the hippocampus area and Nissl bodies from the motor cortex area were observed (Nissl, Klüver–Barrera staining). Also, computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (T1, proton density, ultra short echo time sequences) were feasible. They produced high quality morpho-diagnostic images. Both histological and radiological examinations could not confirm the pathologist's previously suggested diagnosis of cerebral haemorrhage as the cause of death. Reproducible cloned mtDNA sequences were recovered from the skeleton but not from the brain itself. This was most likely due to the combined effect of formaldehyde driven DNA–DNA and/or DNA–protein cross-linking, plus hydrolytic fragmentation of the DNA. The chemical profile of the brain tissue, from gas-chromatography/mass-spectroscopy analysis, suggested adipocerous formation as the main aetiology of the mummification process. The hereby presented child brain is a unique paleo-case of well-preserved neuronal cellular tissue, which is a conditio sine qua non for any subsequent study addressing wider perspectives in neuroscience research, such as the evolution of brain morphology and pathology.

Mummy Recipe Hard to Follow

![Figure][1] CREDIT: H. SONDREGGER/UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH Frank Ruhli wants to know just how the Egyptians did it. So he is trying to mummify human legs. Ruhli, a physician and head of the Swiss Mummy Project at the University of Zurich, and his collaborators severed the legs from a female donor body. One, the “control leg,” was kept in an oven at 40°C and low humidity to replicate “natural mummification” in the Egyptian desert. The other leg, as described in ancient Egyptian records, was put on a pine board and covered with natron, a blend of four sodium compounds that pulls moisture out of the tissue. The researchers left it at 23°C to see what natron would do in the Swiss environment. Other researchers have tried mummifying human remains. But the Swiss group is using advanced imaging technology, biopsies, and tests of DNA degradation for moment-by-moment analysis of the mummification process. So far, the researchers have found that mummification in Zurich takes longer than expected: After 3 months, scans showed that the natron leg still had pockets of humidity, Ruhli says. They have also discovered that storing an untreated leg in the heat doesn't work well. The control leg failed to dry out and started to decompose after a week. Ruhli plans to repeat the experiment, this time encasing the control leg in hot sand. [1]: pending:yes

The Mummified Corpse in a Domestic Setting

A mummified body of an 86-year-old white man with a history of coronary atherosclerosis was found in the reception-room of his apartment located in a condominium of the city-center of Bari (Southern Italy) approximately 7 years after disappearance. Unpaid electricity bills caused the power stations to turn off electricity while unpaid condominium bills forced the manager of the condominium to open the apartment where the body was found. The corpse was well preserved through the mummification process and no external injuries were observed. Signs of a very low insect activity were also present, reasonably consistent with a rapid skin dehydration. The body was sitting on the carpet in front of an easy-chair, fully clothed by a woollen vest with dark paints and shoes. The head was lying face down on the easy-chair. The corpse was very light in weight, fixed in the sitting position by the brittle dehydrated tissues. The carpet on which the body was sitting and the covering tissue of the easy-chair on which the head was lying absorbed most of the early putrefactive fluids coming from the corpse. The internal organs were grossly identifiable but essentially unremarkable. On histologic examination most of the tissues were found to be autolyzed. Toxicology studies revealed only decompositional products. The cause of death was undetermined but presumed natural. Based on the ante-mortem data available the corpse was soon identified by dental comparison to be that one of the apartment owner missing 7 years before. The delayed recovery of elderly people who lived alone, incapacitated or unable to get help, or even of lonely deaths of nobody seems to miss are often explained by the isolation os such people even in urban areas in addition to a deficient family support, missing social and neighborly relationships, worsening of the health and financial conditions.

Trends In The Development Of Embalming Methods

Embalming has been of immense importance as a means of preserving the dead in many cultures globally. This has been done for thousands of years for religious and social reasons. The ancient Egypt developed embalming to the greatest extent through the process of mummification. This study involves extensive internet search and review of journal\internet articles. The objective is to access the trends in the development of embalming methods from ancient to the present; and its importance to the Nigerian situation. Embalming techniques evolved from accumulation of centuries of trial and error as well as research and invention. The ancient methods evolved by trial and error. In the renaissance period the embalming techniques became more refined as a result of scientific research and invention in medicine. Modern day embalming got established during the American civil wars following discoveries in medicine. In Nigeria, even though there is paucity of literature on embalming, evidence exists that traditional embalming is still in practice in the rural settings. The essential purpose of embalming is preservation of the body to permit planned burial and prevention of infection.

Harnessing the Hallowed Hollows of the Head: The Mysterious World of the Paranasal Sinuses

Harnessing the Hallowed Hollows of the Head: The Mysterious World of the Paranasal Sinuses

Common and Unexpected Findings in Mummies from Ancient Egypt and South America as Revealed by CT

Computed tomography (CT) has proved to be a valuable investigative tool for mummy research and is the method of choice for examining mummies. It allows for noninvasive insight, especially with virtual endoscopy, which reveals detailed information about the mummy's sex, age, constitution, injuries, health, and mummification techniques used. CT also supplies three-dimensional information about the scanned object. Mummification processes can be summarized as "artificial," when the procedure was performed on a body with the aim of preservation, or as "natural," when the body's natural environment resulted in preservation. The purpose of artificial mummification was to preserve that person's morphologic features by delaying or arresting the decay of the body. The ancient Egyptians are most famous for this. Their use of evisceration followed by desiccation with natron (a compound of sodium salts) to halt putrefaction and prevent rehydration was so effective that their embalmed bodies have survived for nearly 4500 years. First, the body was cleaned with a natron solution; then internal organs were removed through the cribriform plate and abdomen. The most important, and probably the most lengthy, phase was desiccation. After the body was dehydrated, the body cavities were rinsed and packed to restore the body's former shape. Finally, the body was wrapped. Animals were also mummified to provide food for the deceased, to accompany the deceased as pets, because they were seen as corporal manifestations of deities, and as votive offerings. Artificial mummification was performed on every continent, especially in South and Central America.

An Ancient Egyptian Mummified Head: A Second Opinion

We read with great interest the article “High-Resolution Imaging of an Ancient Egyptian Mummified Head: New Insights into the Mummification Process” by R. Gutpa, Y. Markowitz, L. Berman, and P. Chapman.[1][1] Their observations are very interesting, but their conclusions are difficult to

Indications of embalming in Roman Greece by physical, chemical and histological analysis

The partially mummified remains of a high-status female (ca. 1700 BP, Thessaloniki, Greece) were found inside a Roman-type marble sarcophagus containing a lead coffin. The individual was positioned on a wooden pallet, wrapped in bandages, and covered with a gold-embroidered purple silk cloth. Besides the clothes, remnants of soft tissue as well as the individual's original hair style and eyebrows were exceptionally well preserved. In addition to the macroscopic examination, microscopic and biochemical analyses were undertaken. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were applied to examine the tissue preservation and probable mechanisms of mummification. The presence of chemical components, such as sesquiterpenes, triterpenoids, and diterpenoids, originating from coniferous and pistacia resins, myrrh, and other spices, verify ancient information on preparation methods of the dead in Greek and Roman times. These chemical components are thought to have played a prominent role in the mummification mechanism in this particular case. The potential effect of the lead coffin in the mummification process was also examined. Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis failed to detect lead penetration into the tissues, suggesting that the coffin played a limited role in the preservation of soft tissue.

Evolution of Rhinology

The study of the nose is as old as civilisation. Various conditions affecting its structure and function has been documented in Edwin Smith Papyrus in hieroglyphic script, an Egyptian writing system of the mid -4th Millennium BC.The major contribution for the complete reconstruction of the nose originated in India by Sushruta in around 600 BC. Writing in Sanskrit in the form of verses he described in detail the technique of total reconstruction, which is still being practiced today as Indian Rhinoplasty. This surgical reconstruction paved the way to modern plastic surgery in Europe and United States in 18th century. Sushruta contributed not only to the plastic surgery of the nose, but described entire philosophy of Head and Neck and other surgery as well. Other notable contributors were Greek physicians, Hippocrate and Galen, and at the birth of the Christianity, Celsus wrote eight books of medical encyclopaedia, which described various conditions affecting nose.Septal and Sinus surgery, in comparison to rhinoplasty did not develop until 17th century. Septal surgery began with total septectomy, sub mucous resection by Killian & Freer in early 20th century and later septoplasty by Cottle in middle of 20th century.Sinus surgery probably originated in Egypt, where instruments were used to remove brain through the ethmoid sinuses as part of the mummification process. In 18th century, empyema of the maxillary sinus was drained through the tooth socket or anterior wall of the sinus, which lead to the evolution of radical procedures of removal of mucous membrane and inferior meatal antrostomy. In the late 20th century, improved understanding of the mucociliary mechanism described by Prof. Messerklinger and Nasal Endoscopy described by Prof. Draf with the development of fibre optics and CT imaging, heralded a new era, which evolved in functional endoscopic sinus surgery. New technology further enhanced the scope of endoscope being used "around and beyond" the nose.

High-resolution imaging of an ancient Egyptian mummified head: new insights into the mummification process.

Systematic facial mutilations during mummification have never been described before. The purpose of this work was to study a wrapped mummified head using high-resolution CT scanning. An isolated mummified head from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom was scanned at 200 mum isotropic resolution. A prototype flat panel CT scanner was used to generate 800 nonoverlapping CT sections at 120 kV and 50 mA. This dataset was analyzed to discern various surgical alterations during mummification. There were large defects in the cribriform plate and the posterior fossa. Systematic mutilations of the facial bones and mandible, involving the anterior and inferior walls of the maxillary sinuses, the floor of both orbits, and the zygomatic arches with contiguous segments of the zygomas, were demonstrated. The coronoid processes of both mandibles had been sharply excised and the articular tubercles of the temporomandibular joints fractured. Defects in the ethmoid and the posterior skull base are consistent with previous descriptions of excerebration. Mutilations of the facial skeleton and jaw, which are unrelated to the process of excerebration, have never been described previously. It is noteworthy that the osteotomies selectively include the insertions of the muscles of mastication. These mutilations apparently were designed for mobilization of lower jaw. The "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony, described in the ancient texts, would be difficult to perform in the presence of rigor mortis; it is probable that the observed osteotomies were performed to facilitate this ceremony. Our research suggests that by the Middle Kingdom, Egyptian embalmers had developed highly sophisticated surgical techniques that have not been appreciated previously.

Back to the Egyptians: neurosurgery via the nose

The possibility of removing the brain through the nose without disfiguring the face was already known to the ancient Egyptians, who were experts in using this approach in the mummification process. A similar route through the nose and the sphenoid bone has been developed in the last century as a surgical procedure for the treatment of tumors of the pituitary region, which makes the more invasive craniotomy unnecessary in most cases. This has resulted in a significant decrease of the overall mortality and morbidity rates and has led to the great popularity of such minimally invasive surgery both for patients and doctors. The recent advent of the endoscope in this specific field and the development of further possibilities and instrumentation has contributed to a new renaissance of this old treatment modality.

A Forensic Case Study of a Naturally Mummified Brain from the Bushveld of South Africa

The present study reports our observations of a naturally mummified human brain found in the bushveld of South Africa. This case extends the geographic and climatic ranges in which mummified brains have been found, and it represents an additional case where no human activity has led to the mummification. The mummified brain was c. one fifth the size of a normal human brain, while the gyral and sulcal patterns of a typical human brain were clear. CT scanning of the brain revealed that subcortical structures, normally evident in this type of imaging, were not discernable, indicating a slow mummification process. Histological examination of the tissue revealed near complete degradation of the microanatomical structure, with only putative Nissl bodies remaining as identifiable neural microstructures. The specimen appears to have survived several veld fires, as well as a high annual rainfall, and a high relative humidity. It is thought that specific conditions amenable to brain mummification, but not other soft tissues, occurred in the skull of this specimen in the weeks postmortem.

Cutaneous findings in mummies from the British Museum

This paper describes pathological abnormalities visible on the skin of mummies in the British Museum, London, and the photographic methods used to record their appearances. Although the mummification process limits the clinical information available, features compatible with eczema were identified for only the second time in mummified remains.

Cutaneous Findings in Mummies from the British Museum

This paper describes pathological abnormalities visible on the skin of mummies in the British Museum, London, and the photographic methods used to record their appearances. Although the mummification process limits the clinical information available, features compatible with eczema were identified for only the second time in mummified remains.

Effective Mummification Compounds Used in Pharaonic Egypt: Reactivity on Bone Alkaline Phosphatase

In Pharaonic Egypt from the Old Kingdom up to the Ptolemaic Period the deceased were pre-treated in the course of the mummification process using a wealth of embalming components including resins and many different wood tars. GC/MS studies allowed the elucidation of a great number of clearly separated compounds found in the ancient embalming material. Phenols, guaiacols, naphthalenes, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenoids, oxidised diterpene resin acids and triterpenoids were noticed. These results and particularly the detection of an unused embalming material shed some new light on the possible way as to how the different embalming materials might have been prepared and applied. It was striking to see the accordance of the present data with the well-known treatises by Herodotus (490-425 B. C.) and by Pliny the Elder (23/24-79 A. C.). The impact of the historical observations on modern science and in return the dramatic promotion of ancient texts stimulated by the present study is intriguing. An enzyme, alkaline phosphatase, bound inside mummified bones was a useful tool to reveal the efficacy of the embalming materials. Initial data showed that alkaline phosphatase isolated from embalmed bones from the Old Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Period was significantly more abundant and displayed a higher activity compared to the properties of the corresponding enzyme from non-treated mummified bones. Additionally, in a model study porcine ribs were pre-treated with four selected embalming compounds - guaiacol, limonene, α-pinene and p-cymene - and subsequently air-dried. Among the four selected compounds guaiacol was the most reactive species in the course of the preservation process. The specific activity of bone alkaline phosphatase rose 12-fold compared to that of the control. The enzyme itself remained unharmed as the observed relative molecular mass was surprisingly identical with the contemporary enzyme. It was again striking that the guaiacol derivatives were richly abundant in the unused embalming material mentioned above.

Near‐infrared Fourier transform Raman spectroscopy of skin samples from the ‘Tomb of the Two Brothers,’ Khnum‐Nakht and Nekht‐Ankh, XIIth dynasty Egyptian mummies (ca 2000 BC)

AbstractMicroscopic near‐infrared Fourier transform Raman investigations were performed of skin samples from the Nekht‐Ankh mummy found in the ‘Tomb of the Two Brothers’ in Egypt (ca 2000 BC). Spectra were obtained from various sites on the samples. The lipids and proteins seemed well preserved, although different degrees of protein deterioration were observed. In some spots the protein degradation was rather high. Some sites showed very well preserved protein secondary structures with both helical and sheet contents, indicating that the artificial mummification process had a positive effect although no embalming chemicals were left in those spots. Sodium sulphate was the only artificial chemical that could be detected and the degradation of lipid and protein seemed to be rather high in the region containing sodium sulphate. The Raman spectra of the best preserved skin samples from the Nekht‐Ankh mummy are very similar to those obtained from the best preserved child rock‐cleft mummy (I/2) from Qilakitsoq in Greenland. The conclusion is that the artificial embalming process used by the ancient Egyptians was an efficient way to preserve the mummies even under hot conditions. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Borate in mummification salts and bones from Pharaonic Egypt

Mummification processes in Pharaonic Egypt were successful using sodium salts. Quite frequently sodium concentrations in mummified bones ranged from 300 to 4000 μmol/g. In the search for an effective inorganic conservation compound our choice fell on boric acid. The possible presence of borate in mummification salts used in Pharaonic Egypt was of special interest both historically and biochemically. In two salt samples, one from the embalming material of Tutankhamen (18th dynasty, 1336–1327 BC) and the second from Deir el-Bahari (25th dynasty, 700–600 BC) borate was found, amounting to 2.1±0.2 and 3.9±0.1 μmol/g, respectively. In five of the examined bone fragments from the Junker excavation at Giza (Old Kingdom) similar borate concentrations i.e., 1.2 μmol borate/g bone were seen. It must be emphasized that the usual borate content of contemporary autopsy is far below the detection limit. The elevated borate content in both mummification salt and ancient bone samples support the suggestion that borate-containing salt had been used. There is a striking correlation of both borate concentration and alkaline phosphatase activity. When both sodium salts and borate were essentially absent no activity at all was detectable. With increasing borate concentrations the enzyme activity rises significantly. Attributable to the distinct biochemistry of the tetrahydroxyborate anion it was of interest whether or not borate may stabilize alkaline phosphatase, an important and richly abundant bone enzyme. This enzyme was chosen, as it is known to survive more than 4000 years of mummification. In the presence of borate oligomeric species of this zinc-magnesium-glycoprotein at 400 000 Da became detectable. Attributable to this borate-dependent stabilization of the enzyme molecule a significant temperature resistant increase of the enzymic activity was measured in the presence of up to 2.5 mM borate.

First paleoparasitological study of an embalming rejects jar found in Saqqara, Egypt.

For the first time, a jar of embalming rejects was studied in search for helminth parasite eggs. This kind of jar was used to put discarded material by Egyptian embalmers during mummification process. Ascaris lumbricoides and Taenia saginata eggs were found in the linen and strip fragment contents of the jar, dated of 2,715-2,656 years ago.

Endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal surgery.

The existence of a route through the nose to the brain that avoided disfiguring the face was well known to the Egyptians (2600 BC), who used to insert special hooked instruments up through the nostril and the sphenoid sinus to extract the brain in the mummification process.

NIR-FT Raman spectroscopy as a diagnostic probe for mummified skin and nails

Raman spectroscopy is able to provide novel information non-destructively in the analysis of ancient skin tissue samples. The technique is well-suited to partially desiccated or wet samples of skin, which may have been subjected to varying degrees of degradation, depending on the burial environment. Suitable selection of wavelength of excitation and use of a Raman microscope offer a means of accessing information from small samples, which may be required for study afterwards using destructive analytical methods. From comparisons with the Raman spectra of healthy and diseased contemporary skin specimens, it is possible to discover whether the skin preservation has been natural or assisted by chemicals used in mummification processes. Such information is of importance in archaeological conservation and can shed light on historical practices. In this study will be presented the results from Raman spectroscopic analysis of the skin of the 5200-year-old “ice-man” of the Alps and, skin and nail samples from the mediaeval Qilakitsoq ice-mummies (500-year-old) and skin from the hot-desert Chiribaya Mummies (1000-year-old).