Biodiesel Synthesis Process Research Articles

Coumarin 153, a solvatochromic fluorescent probe, for analyzing the biodiesel blends derived from various feedstocks.

Biodiesel is renewable energy source an alternative to conventional fossil fuels. The primary concern lies in detecting alcohol content in biodiesel, which can either be intentionally added by adulterants or remain in trace amounts from the refining process of biodiesel synthesis. In order to regulate the quality of biodiesel production, it is crucial to develop an analytical method for monitoring alcohol content in biodiesel. Present study identified Coumarin 153 (C-153) with outstanding solvatochromic characteristics in multiple biodiesel feedstocks (soybean, canola, sesame, and corn). Based on our spectroscopic investigations, this alcohol (methanol, ethanol, and propanol) sensing method has proven to be rapid, sensitive, ratiometric, and visually discernible, and the detection limit for ethanol in soybean biodiesel could reach 0.23% v/v. The percentage of alcohol (0-100% v/v) in the biodiesel determines significant changes in the lifetime values of the C-153 from 5.1ns to 0.35ns. Moreover, we depict explicit solvation models (ethanol) and implicit solvation models (biodiesel) from quantum chemical calculations to explain the experimental results. Based on our study, C-153 with alcohol sensing capabilities seems to have potential applications in biodiesel analysis. The present results will inspire future efforts to simplify and optimize the detection of alcohol in biodiesel by using optical methods.

Eco-Friendly Approach to Palm Oil Biodiesel Production: Torrefied Palm Frond Carbon as a Source for CaO/C/NaOH Catalysts

Biomass-based sources for energy generation have attracted much attention recently due to its environmental benefits. These days, using edible oils and alkali catalysts, such as CaO, is standard practice for the transesterification step of the biodiesel synthesis process. Glycerine and methanol will form hydrogen bonds with the oxygen ions on the CaO surface, increasing the viscosity of the glycerine and causing CaO to suspend. Even though CaO was utilized directly as a catalyst in the transesterification process, extracting the CaO and glycerine from the final product will be challenging. To solve this issue, any extra metal oxides or catalyst supports ought to be impregnated into the CaO. This work has investigated the possible use of eggshells and palm fronds in developing bifunctional catalysts for biodiesel production. A series makes the processes' catalyst, including impregnation, calcination, and torrefaction. To assess the catalyst's performance, the esterification and transesterification of palm oil with a 2.9% free fatty acid content were investigated at a methanol/oil ratio of 6:1, catalyst concentration of 1-3% by weight, reaction temperature of 70 °C, and duration of 3 hours. The catalyst was found to have a specific surface area of 8.266 m2/g. There was an 89.4% yield of biodiesel produced. A viable, economical, and ecologically friendly method of producing biodiesel is to use eggshells and palm fronds in catalyst synthesis.

The sustainable prospect of biodiesel production: Transformative technologies, catalysts from bio-wastes, and techno-economic assessment

Energy is the most significant factor influencing a nation’s economic success, social advancement, and human welfare. The increasing demand for oil and other forms of energy has fuelled the need for sustainable alternative energy sources. In this context, energy-providing biofuel materials are widely considered a sustainable alternative. Biodiesel, among other biofuel materials, is currently recognized as a valuable resource for the transportation sector on a global scale. To fulfill the growing demand for biodiesel and to ensure sustainability, the biodiesel synthesis process must be expedited. Therefore, reviewing and upgrading the technological strategies for biodiesel production is vital. The current review paper summarizes recent technological advancements in the biodiesel production process and the process parameters that influence the biodiesel production yield. Also, the significance of eco-friendly biocatalysts derived from waste biomass and waste metals for enhancing biodiesel yield has been highlighted. Furthermore, a techno-economic analysis and life cycle evaluation of different biodiesels are reviewed to examine their economic viability and environmental sustainability when produced using bio-derived catalysts. Overall, it is recognized from recent improvements in biodiesel synthesis that the processes that use catalysts generated from waste sources might considerably facilitate the transition to a more sustainable and economical biodiesel production.

Enzymatic In Situ Interesterification of Rapeseed Oil with Methyl Formate in Diesel Fuel Medium

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the process of enzymatic biodiesel synthesis by directly using rapeseed as a raw material, extracting the oil contained within and interesterifying with a mixture of methyl formate and mineral diesel, choosing the amount of mineral diesel so that the ratio between it and the rapeseed oil in the seeds was 9:1. As the final product of the interesterification process, a mixture of mineral diesel and biodiesel was obtained directly, which is conventionally produced by mixing the mineral diesel and biodiesel. The tests were performed using enzymatic catalysis using the lipase Lipozyme TL TIM. Process optimization was performed using the response surface methodology. A model describing the interaction of three independent variables and their influence on the yield of rapeseed oil methyl esters was developed. The physical and chemical indicators of the product obtained under optimal interesterification conditions were evaluated.

Optimization of Process Variables in the production of Biodiesel from Jatropha-Neem Hybrid Feed stock Mixture

In the search for suitable clean and renewable fuels to replace conventional diesel, alternatives such as biodieselsare being researched upon daily. Challenges of low biodiesel yield per hectare of vegetable oils have prompted the need for optimization. This research is aimed at optimizing process variables in the production of biodiesel from the mixture of Jatropha and Neem seed oils. A 31-run Central Composite Design was employed in a response surface optimization process; four independent process variables, namely temperature, time, catalyst concentration and mixing speed were optimized in an alkali based transesterification process of biodiesel synthesis. The result was a 97.05% biodiesel yield from Jatropha –Neem hybrid mixture.

Biodiesel production from hempseed (Cannabis sativa L.) oil: Providing optimum conditions by response surface methodology

This study focuses on the optimization of biodiesel synthesis using non-edible hempseed oil as the feedstock. The response surface method was used to find the best methanol: oil molar ratio, catalyst concentration, reaction temperature, and reaction duration for the transesterification process. The center composite design experimental design was used to make the design. A total of 30 cycles were conducted to adjust the four parameters at five different levels in order to optimize the biodiesel production process. It was found that the best conditions for transesterification of hempseed oil were a KOH catalyst concentration of 0.80 wt.%, a molar ratio of 7.41:1, a reaction time of 62.83 min, and a reaction temperature of 61.92 °C. Under these optimized reaction conditions, the predicted biodiesel yield was 95.57%, while the experimental yield was 95.24%. The biodiesel produced using the optimized parameters was analyzed for its properties, and the findings demonstrated that it met the requirements of EN 14214, a standard for biodiesel quality. The optimization of the biodiesel synthesis process using non-edible hempseed oil contributes to the exploration of alternative and sustainable feedstocks for biodiesel production. The values of the produced biodiesel within the standard range demonstrate its suitability for commercial applications and strengthen the potential of hemp seed oil as a suitable raw material for biodiesel production.

Synthesis of biodiesel from waste oil by glycerol pre-esterification

The waste oil with high acid value was used as raw material, and compared the pre-esterification of methanol and glycerol. The results showed that methanol pre-esterification can reduce the acid value to below 4 mgKOH/g only by multiple chemical reactions. But glycerol can reduce the acid value to less than 2 mgKOH/g once without catalysis. Through orthogonal experiment, the optimal process was obtained: the mass ratio of glycerol pre esterified oil to methanol was 10:3, the amount of catalyst was 0.8 % of the mass of oil, the reaction temperature was 65 °C, the reaction time was 150 min, and the conversion rate was 96.7 %. The results of characteristic comparison and process analysis show that glycerin pre-esterification not only has fast reaction, good effect and better environmental protection, but also has the same quality as methanol pre-esterification, and it’s easier to realize the continuous process of biodiesel synthesis from waste oil with high acid.

Analysis of waste cooking oil biodiesel (WCO) synthesis with TiO2 impregnated CaO from waste shells nano-catalyst

The development of clean and renewable energy sources has become crucial due to the rapid rise in crude oil prices, depleting fossil fuel reserves, and increase in environmental pollution caused by various industries. Due to this phenomenon, biodiesel has emerged as a renewable and eco-friendly alternative to conventional diesel fuel because it is non-toxic and biodegradable. WCO is one of the best resources in biodiesel production which has a high potential such as saving ecological systems, improving pollution by clean emissions, preventing food supplies and more economic. However, this WCO cannot be used directly in diesel combustion engines due to their properties are not good as diesel fuel. Thus, it needs to be converted as biodiesel fuel before apply. In the biodiesel synthesis process, the catalyst for instance KOH, NaOH, HCL, H2SO4 etc. plays a significant role to increase their yield but also needs a washing process. Currently, the synthesis of WCO biodiesel using CaO-TiO2 nanoparticles as a catalyst could be an excellent alternative because it eliminates the biodiesel’s washing step and the catalyst can be reused. Hence, the cost of biodiesel production will be reduced. CaO catalyst was produced by using waste cockle and sea snail shells as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly heterogeneous catalyst. In addition, TiO2 impregnated CaO nanoparticles also have been studied through the ultrasonication process for the improvement in thermo-physical properties of catalyst reaction. It showed that the 15:1 ratio is the ideal ratio for the conversion of biodiesel production for both catalysts, which are 94.58% by using CaO catalyst and 98.78% by using CaO-TiO2 catalyst. Furthermore, the optimum average reaction time is 150 min, equivalent to 2.5 h and catalyst loading is 2.3 wt%.

Preparation and characterization of a novel efficient catalyst based on molybdenum oxide supported over graphene oxide for biodiesel synthesis

In this study, a new catalyst for heterogeneous acid based on molybdenum oxide (MoO3) supported over graphene oxide (GO) was synthesized and applied in simultaneous esterification-transesterification reactions using waste cooking oil (WCO) to obtain biodiesel. In the catalyst synthesis, the GO support was synthesized from graphite oxidation, followed by wet MoO3 impregnation. The MoO3/GO catalyst was characterized by Surface Acidity, Thermogravimetric Analysis (TG/DTG), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersion X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS). The application of the catalyst in the conversion of WCO into biodiesel had as parameters reaction temperature (120.0–160.0 °C), reaction time (1.0–5.0 h), catalyst loading of (2.0–10.0%) and methanol:oil molar ratio of (25:1–45:1). The results of the catalytic tests showed the best condition of biodiesel synthesis was 140.0 °C reaction temperature, 5.0 h of reaction time, 6.0% catalyst loading and 35:1 methanol:oil molar ratio, leading to a biodiesel with ester content of 95.6%. The catalyst showed good recovery and excellent catalytic performance in the reuse study, producing biodiesel with ester content above 70.0% after 5 reaction cycles. Thus, this study shows a promising new catalyst of heterogeneous acid with high catalytic activity and applicability in the biodiesel synthesis process.

Application of ultrasound technology in the intensification of biodiesel production from bitter almond oil (BAO) in the presence of biocompatible heterogeneous catalyst synthesized from camel bone

ABSTRACT Although biofuels have many benefits, but their production costs are high. This challenge has caused researches to use waste materials and apply technologies to lower the cost of producing these fuels. In this study, a biocompatible heterogeneous catalyst created from calcining camel bones is employed to make biodiesel fuel from non-edible bitter almond oil (BAO). Additionally, using ultrasound technology was one way to increase the effectiveness of the biodiesel synthesis process. Additionally, the effects of the independent variables alcohol to oil molar ratio (6:1, 11:1, and 16:1), reaction time (10, 20, and 30 minutes), ultrasonic power (30, 65, and 100%), catalyst loading (4, 8, and 12 oil wt%), and reaction time (10, 20, and 30 minutes) on the production of methyl ester from BAO were examined. Camel bones were calcined at 400, 700, and 1000°C for 2, 3, and 4 hours. Optimum temperature and time conditions for camel bones calcination with maximum methyl ester production of 88% were obtained at 1000°C and 3 hours after measuring the morphology structure of camel bones catalyst using XRD and TGA methods. The maximum biodiesel conversion rate of 92.3% was obtained using the calcined catalyst with a molar ratio of 11:1, a catalyst loading of 8%, an ultrasonic power of 100%, and a reaction time of 20 minutes. Using the response surface methodology, tests and optimization were performed by Design-Expert software. Biodiesel yield and energy consumption were 88.13% and 248.18 kJ in the optimal conditions suggested by the software with the conditions of maximum production and minimum energy consumption with appropriate weighting. According to the results, waste camel bone can be used as a cost-effective biocompatible source with favorable catalytic activity for biodiesel fuel production.

Comprehensive Review on Lipid-based Biomasses as Biodiesel Raw Materials from Ghana

Ghana is a country rich in natural resources, including biodiversity and large water bodies, but it is also plagued by food and energy shortages. Fuel prices are also increasing. Biodiesel made from lipids will attract increasing attention as researchers and experts look for a solution. However, the obvious cheapest option of edible feedstock will be insufficient to meet rising energy and food demand, necessitating the need for a guaranteed feedstock. As a result, this research was conducted to identify lipid-based biomass feedstocks that would be ideal for biodiesel production in Ghana. This research seeks to give current information on the biofuel feedstock currently existing (mostly biodiesel) synthesis from lipid-based biomasses in Ghana. Edible plant oils were the first generation of lipid-based feedstocks, whereas alternative types of feedstocks were identified and reported as the second generation. Non-edible oils, like Jatropha oil, Neem oil, Karanja oil, Nagchampa oil, Calophyllum inophyllum oil, Mahua indica oil, Rubber seed oil, and other non-edible feedstocks are used to make second-generation biodiesels. Vegetable oil waste, industrial wastes and by-products, animal fats, and lipid-derived from microorganisms and insects are also among the 2nd generation feedstocks discussed in this paper. The advantages of 2nd generation feedstocks are the low-cost, high-yielding, and the fact that they do not economically or ethically compete with edible oils (food crops). Nevertheless, all 2nd generation feedstocks are often free fatty acids and having high moisture, which have a significant detrimental impact on the conventional biodiesel synthesis process. As a result, this article contains basic information on processing procedures that can handle 2nd generation feedstocks.

Factors Affecting on Process of Synthesizing Biodiesel and Arranging Production Steps: a Review Study

Biodiesel is a recycled and biological fatty acid ester manufactured from animal fat, used cooking oil, botanical oil, and algae. Biodiesel is a viable replacement and more environmentally friendly and sustainable alternative for diesel oil since it is made from renewable resources and has qualities similar to diesel oil. When producing biodiesel from renewable resources, the trans-esterification method is utilized. This method manufactures fatty acid alkyl ester (biodiesel) and crude glycerol, which is accomplished by replacing the organic group (alkyl) of alcohol with the organic group of the primary triglyceride component of the raw materials. When the biodiesel specifications meet the global standard established by the European Union's EN14214 or the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) for alternative fuels, it can be used in its purest form, known as B100 or blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration. B100 is the purest form of biodiesel. The temperature of the reaction, molar ratio of alcohol to oil, type of alcohol used, type of catalyst utilized and the concentration of the catalyst are all parameters that must be considered during the biodiesel synthesis process. Moreover, the amount of time that the reaction is allowed to continue, the existence of humidity, and the amount of free fatty acids also significantly influence the production process. To minimize the costs of producing biodiesel, selecting the most effective methods is essential.

Thevetia peruviana Seed Oil Transesterification for Biodiesel Production: An Optimization Study

Biodiesel production has been studied using non-edible seed oil from Thevetia peruviana. The non-edible oil from Thevetia peruviana seed could be used as a feedstock for biodiesel manufacturing. In this paper, the production of biodiesel utilizing Thevetia peruviana Seed Oil (TPSO) has been investigated. The ripe seeds of Thevetia peruviana were gathered from China and Pakistan, and after drying, its oil was extracted using the Soxhlet procedure. The seeds' highest oil content was discovered to be between 48-62%. Investigations were done into the TPSO's physicochemical characteristics. Transesterification was used to make biodiesel. The methanol to oil molar ratio, the duration, temperature, rate of stirring, and the amount of catalyst loaded were all studied in order to optimize the biodiesel synthesis process and get the highest yield. Under the ideal conditions, which included a methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 6:1, a catalyst loading of 0.42 weight percent, a temperature of 70°C, a stirring rate of 700 rpm, and an 80-minute reaction period, the biodiesel yield was 98.4%. Gas Chromatography (GC) analysis was used to identify the fatty acid configuration of the oil. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR, 1H NMR and 13C NMR) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to characterize the biodiesel product. The ASTM & EN test technique were used to determine the biodiesel's fuel characteristics. Thevetia peruviana seed oil is used to make biodiesel that satisfies the requirements of ASTM D6751 and EN standards. As a result, this seed oil is a possible feedstock for the production of biodiesel.

A novel strategy for biodiesel production by combination of liquid lipase, deep eutectic solvent and ultrasonic-assistance in scaled-up reactor: Optimization and kinetics

Biodiesel and its synthesis process have been increasing in popularity as a potential alternative to fossil fuels. The lipase catalyzed biodiesel synthesis process is considered to be a viable option for industrialization owing to its environmentally friendliness and energy efficiency. However, because of the long reaction duration and low biodiesel yield, it is not yet suitable for large-scale manufacturing. To overcome these limitations, in this paper we presented a novel strategy combined deep eutectic solvents with ultrasonic technique in a scale-up reactor for biodiesel synthesis catalyzed by liquid lipase Yarrowia lipolytica Lipase 2. With the ultrasonic reactor, 93.3% yield biodiesel was obtained under the optimized conditions of 30% water content, 3% lipase loading, 1000 rpm stirring speed and 60 W ultrasonic power in only 6 h reaction time. A kinetic model was built to study the dynamics of the liquid lipase catalyzed reaction system. Then, the model was applied to simulate and optimize the initial water addition and oil-methanol molar ratio in the reactor. The results indicate that the kinetic model fits well for the simulation of this reaction system, which contributes to optimizing the dynamic analysis of the complex system. Meanwhile, a deep eutectic solvent synthesized from natural inexpensive materials was applied for the first time in combination with ultrasonic in scale-up reactor for the liquid lipase-catalytic biodiesel production. With this approach, the biodiesel yield could attain 99% with a reaction time of 6 h and 60 W ultrasonic powers. The reusable batches of lipase were also enhanced, and the biodiesel yield could still reach more than 89% after reusing 5 batches. These results demonstrate that the liquid lipase catalyzed synthesis of biodiesel with the assistance of ultrasound and deep eutectic solvent has a strong potential for industrial application.

Biodiesel Synthesis from Refined Palm Oil Using a Calcium Oxide Impregnated Ash-Based Catalyst: Parametric, Kinetics, and Product Characterization Studies

Heterogeneous catalyzed transesterification has been proposed as a promising technology to mitigate the limitations of homogeneous transesterification such as wastewater generation, low free fatty acids, low water tolerance, and inability to recycle the catalyst. This work aims to evaluate a refined palm biodiesel synthesis process through heterogeneous catalyzed transesterification. Three major process variables were studied over a reaction duration of 3–6 h, including the reaction temperature (45–65 °C), percentage of catalyst loading (4–6 wt.%), and methanol to oil molar ratio (6:1–12:1). The highest biodiesel yield of 88.58% was recorded under the conditions of temperature 55 °C, catalyst loading 4 wt.% and methanol to oil molar ratio 9:1 at 5 h. A pseudo-first order reaction mechanism was applied in the kinetic analysis of the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) concentrations. In addition, the activation energy and pre-exponential factors, as determined through the kinetic analysis, were 31.2 kJ/mol and 680.21 min−1, respectively. The key fuel properties of the produced palm biodiesel were determined to be acceptable according to the ASTM D 6751 and EN 14214 standards. The developed catalyst could feasibly be reused for the palm biodiesel synthesis up to the third cycle with lower reaction performance in the fourth cycle.

Optimization of Esterification and Transesterification Processes for Biodiesel Production from Used Cooking Oil

Various treatments were carried out to produce biodiesel optimally. This research was conducted to process used cooking oil (UCO) into biodiesel. UCO with high FFA has saponification in the transesterification reaction. Transesterification experiment UCO with % FFA 4.261 and acid number 8.42 mg-KOH/g produced saponification. This experiment was carried out at different temperatures, speeds, and times. It is necessary to carry out initial esterification treatment. Simultaneously the biodiesel synthesis process is carried out by esterification and transesterification processes. The esterification process with 3%wt H2SO4 catalyst, 1:6 molar ratio of oil and alcohol with temperature treatment of 50 °C, speed of 300 rpm for 60 minutes can reduce % FFA in UCO to 2.115 and acid number 4.208 mg-KOH/g. The transesterification process using a NaOH catalyst of 0.5% wt, the molar ratio of oil and alcohol 1:6 with a temperature treatment of 60°C, a speed of 400 rpm for 60 minutes, can produce biodiesel with an acid number of 0.28 mg-KOH/g and 0.141 of % FFA according to SNI 7182-2015 standard. These results after purification on biodiesel.

Biodiesel (methyl oleate) synthesis in the presence of pyridinium and aminotriazolium acidic ionic liquids: Kinetic, thermodynamic studies

Kinetics and thermodynamics of biodiesel (methyl oleate) synthesis using the protic ionic liquids pyridinium hydrogen sulfate (PHS), pyridinium nitrate (PN) and 4-amino-1H-1,2,4-triazolium nitrate (ATN) as catalysts are studied in the current work for the first time. Rate of the biodiesel production is directly related to acidity of the ionic liquids used and their internal hydrogen bonding extent. A detailed thermodynamic analysis on the title reaction is conducted as well. To optimize the reaction conditions, influence of the reaction temperature (25–55 °C), initial alcohol-to-acid molar ratio (1.0–15.0) and catalyst loading (5–15 wt% with respect to the substrate mass) is investigated in details. Catalyst reusability is evaluated for five cycles. Based on the experimental data, a plausible mechanism of biodiesel synthesis is offered. Catalytic performance of the PHS sample in the biodiesel synthesis is remarkably higher than that of the nitrate anion-based ionic liquids. Reaction temperature of 55 °C, an initial reactants molar ratio of 7.0 and a catalyst loading of 10 wt% are established as optimal conditions for the process of biodiesel production. Values of 43.09 kJ/mol and 91.29 × 105 l/mol × min are calculated as activation energy and pre-exponential factor, respectively. ΔSr° and ΔHr° for the process of biodiesel synthesis are found to be 42.32 J/mol × K and 9.64 kJ/mol, respectively. Moreover, ΔH≠ (40.49 kJ/mol) and ΔS≠ (−162.31 J/mol × K) are established as well. The respective ΔGr° (−4.241 kJ/mol) and ΔG≠ (93.727 kJ/mol) at reaction temperature of 55 °C are obtained.

Production of biodiesel by Burkholderia cepacia lipase as a function of process parameters.

Despite the already established route of chemically catalyzed transesterification reaction in biodiesel production, due to some of its shortcomings, biocatalysts such as lipases present a vital alternative. Namely, it was noticed that one of the key shortcomings for the optimization of the enzyme catalyzed biodiesel synthesis process is the information on the lipase activity in the reaction mixture. In addition to making optimization difficult, it also makes it impossible to compare the results of the independent research. This article shows how lipase intended for use in biodiesel synthesis can be easily and accurately characterized and what is the enzyme concentration that enables achievement of the desired level of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) in the final product mixture. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of two different activity loads of Burkholderia cepacia lipase on the biodiesel synthesis varying the pH and temperature optimal for lipase activity. The optimal lipase pH and temperature were determined by two different enzyme assays: spectrophotometric and titrimetric. The B. cepacia lipase pH optimum differentiated between assays, while the lipase optimally hydrolyzed substrates at 50°C. The analysis of FAME during 24 hr of biodiesel synthesis, at two different enzyme concentrations, pH 7, 8, and 10, and using two different buffers, revealed that the transesterification reaction at optimal pH, 1 hr reaction time and lipase activity load of 250 U per gram of reaction mixture was sufficient to produce more than 99% FAME.

Strategic use of CO2 in the catalytic thermolysis of bio-heavy oil over Co/SiO2 for the enhanced production of syngas

Bio-heavy oil (BHO), a mixture of remaining free fatty acids and glycerides is released as waste materials from biodiesel synthesis process. However, the complexity and impurities in BHO are drawbacks for its valorization due to essential requirement of multiple pretreatment processes. In this study, a direct valorization of BHO into value-added gaseous products was investigated using pyrolysis under CO2 condition. CO2 was used to achieve two goals: (1) establishment of environmentally benign platform using a greenhouse gas, and (2) carbon redistribution between CO2 and BHO to produce more value-added products. Pyrolysis under both CO2 and N2 showed the conversion BHO into syngas and CH4. However, CO2-mediated pyrolysis had additional CO generation with decrease of the volatile matters from BHO pyrolysis. These resulted from gas phase reaction (GPR) of CO2 with volatile matters. To further activate the thermal cracking of BHO and GPRs, multi-stage pyrolysis and catalytic pyrolysis was performed with Co catalysts. CO2-mediated catalytic pyrolysis resulted in both significant formations of CO and H2 from GPRs and dehydrogenation. Therefore, the proposed technical platform could be considered a viable environmentally benign way for waste valorization.

Preparation of biochar catalyst from black liquor by spray drying and fluidized bed carbonation for biodiesel synthesis

Lab-scale experiments were carried out to investigate a new approach of preparing biochar-based catalyst for transesterification reaction. Black liquor (BL) from cotton pulping process was used as a precursor for preparing the catalyst via spray drying followed by fast carbonization in a fluidized bed reactor. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to statistically analyze and optimize the entire process of catalytic synthesis of biodiesel from a waste frying oil, consisted of the catalyst preparation and transesterification steps. Several major operation parameters of the biodiesel synthesis process, including alkaline loading in biochar, methanol to oil ratio, catalyst loading, and the carbonization temperature of catalyst, were studied for their effects on biodiesel conversion. The optimal condition for achieving the maximum biodiesel conversion (i.e. 91.5 %) was found to be: 27wt% alkaline loading in biochar, 600°C carbonization temperature, 7.7 methanol to oil ratio, and 6.5wt% catalyst loading. Overall, the spry drying fluidized bed carbonization demonstrated its viability for significantly reducing duration of high temperature carbonization, opening up the prospects of manufacturing the catalyst in a much less energy consumption manor.