Scientific Research Problems Research Articles

Researcher of national history

The article highlights the problems of scientific research, the creative biography of the great Tatar historian Salyam Khatipovich Alishev, who, having entered graduate school at the age of 34, achieved outstanding success thanks to his determination and enormous diligence, love for the craft of a historian and the desire to learn and write the true history of his native people. In the 1970–1980s, when the planned scientific topics of the majority of the employees of the sector of history were limited to the Soviet period, the achievements and successes of the Institute of Language, Literature and History in the study of the past of the Tatar people of the 15th – 19th centuries were largely determined by the works of S.Kh. Alishev. For citation: Zagidullin I.K. Researcher of national history. From History and Culture of Peoples of the Middle Volga Region. 2024, vol.14, no.3, pp.172–185. https://doi.org/10.22378/2410-0765.2024-14-3.172-185 (In Russian)

Image of a person as a object of scientific and legal cognition

In the article, the author focuses on the relevance of the study of the image of a person as a special object of scientific and legal cognition, which requires a conceptual analysis through the prism of scientific views and approaches. It noted that in connection with the constant changes in the social and legal situation, the information space, and the development of digitization, the issues of determining the place of a person in the relevant processes, of fundamental human rights, as well as the appropriate level of adaptation of legislation to new realities are becoming more and more relevant. Understanding and studying of various concepts, scientific views regarding this issue will make it possible to clarify the peculiarities of the image of a person as an object of scientific and legal cognition. It is substantiated that in cognitive terms it is important to conduct an analysis of the studied phenomenon through the prism of scientific views and concepts, which will allow to generalize its characteristics andimprove the definition. This vector of scientific cognition will allow, first of all, to strengthen the methodological basis for further research of the human image, to define clear boundaries of the subject of scientific cognition, and to establish its cognitive patterns. The article analyzes the image of a person as a special phenomenon identifies, doctrinal approaches to its understanding. The author concluded that the legal aspects of the image of a person as a scientific research problem are research in legal science in a rather fragmentary manner, have a pluralistic nature of doctrinal understanding, require strengthening of scientific legal research, especially in of the general conceptualization of such scientific cognition, have an objectively determined cognitive nature, characterize by deep systemic and structural.

State of scientific research problems of judicial proceedings in civil jurisdiction

The article reveals current problems and the state of scientific research on judicial proceedings in civil proceedings. In particular, special attention is paid to the issue of justice. The definitions and content of justice given by both scientists and its normative basis are analyzed. It is established that some scientists define justice as the main function of the court, while others define it as a form of activity of the court itself. The proposed author’s definition of the concept of «justice». Issues of access to justice are highlighted. It is suggested that the issue of access to justice be classified as one of the main principles of the civil process. The availability of justice and access to court is considered in the context of the concept of basic human rights and freedoms. Access to justice is defined as a combination of such interrelated elements as unconditional freedom, state- guaranteed opportunity and equality of a person whose rights have been violated to apply for judicial protection of his rights and legitimate interests to a competent court; the duty of the court to accept the case for its proceedings, without applying formal reasons for refusal. Application of universal and unlimited court jurisdiction; guarantees of competitiveness, proper judicial procedures, which ensure reasonable terms of consideration of the case. Particular attention is paid to the main principles recommended by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe to member states regarding measures that facilitate access to justice. The opinions of scientists revealing the meaning of such principles as simplification of court proceedings, acceleration of proceedings and court costs are established. The work analyzes official statistical data for 2020 - 2023, regarding the number of cases that were considered in the order of simplified legal proceedings in all courts on the territory of Ukraine. It was concluded that, in minor cases, it would be appropriate to develop and implement national standards that would allow individuals to independently fill out understandable standard forms of procedural documents and submit them to the court, without consulting legal experts. It is proposed to use a differentiated approach to determine the size of the court fee depending on the person’s income or depending on the degree of difficulty of the case, taking into account the procedural costs and time for consideration of the case.

Convergence of a Family of Methods with Symmetric, Antisymmetric Parameters and Weight Functions

Many problems in scientific research are reduced to a nonlinear equation by mathematical means of modeling. The solutions of such equations are found mostly iteratively. Then, the convergence order is routinely shown using Taylor formulas, which in turn make sufficient assumptions about derivatives which are not present in the iterative method at hand. This technique restricts the usage of the method which may converge even if these assumptions, which are not also necessary, hold. The utilization of these methods can be extended under less restrictive conditions. This new paper contributes in this direction, since the convergence is established by assumptions restricted exclusively on the functions present on the method. Although the technique is demonstrated on a two-step Traub-type method with usually symmetric parameters and weight functions, due to its generality it can be extended to other methods defined on the real line or more abstract spaces. Numerical experimentation complement and further validate the theory.

INTEGRATION OF EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN AN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

The article deals with the problem of differentiation and scientific research of scientific knowledge in chemistry at the university. The strategic foundations of science and education incorporation in modern society are presented, together with the main objectives and tasks to enhance their collaboration. The combination of science and education on the foundation of universities has been formed as a multifaceted process, involving the construction of a global data environment, a unified educational space, and the employment of various new teaching methods.One of the research disciplines of chemistry at the university was chosen as a model for studying the mechanisms of integration and differentiation. The relational integration of various fields of knowledge and scientific research in chemistry is considered in detail. The paper exposes the issues that initiate the procedure of combining pedagogical education with science; reveals the areas of work of the department that contribute to the development of scientific research and interaction of the educational process; proposes new fundamental and comprehensive professional skills required for the construction of upcoming bachelors and masters of pedagogical education ready for an innovative combination of knowledge and scientific activity centered around the exploration of the field;educational and analyzed ways to improve the effectiveness of the pedagogical university in the integration of research works are proposed.The purpose of the article is to offer an opportunity to study chemical theories, to develop knowledge and scientific and theoretical knowledge of universities.

Improvement system for the performan of the development manager tutor at the Latin American School of Medicine

One of the objectives of Higher Education institutions is to promote universities of excellence, faced with these new challenges, the Latin American School of Medicine aims to obtain an International Accreditation with emphasis on performance process of the development manager tutor. From this view, identified as a scientific research problem: How to contribute to improvement of the performance of the School's development manager tutor Latin American Medicine in correspondence with the demands contemporary? In this order of analysis, the process of parameterization, the inventory of potentialities and problems from the foundations of Advanced Education and the performance of the tutor manager of development, starting from the determination of the dimensions: professional technique, intellectual production and improvement. Difficulties were observed in performance of the development manager tutors. The methodology used was the integration of theoretical, empirical and statistical methods. The objective of the research, with the proposal of an improvement system, which analyzes the object of study as a phenomenon in constant transformation and development and reveals the links between its components. Among the essential characteristics of the system are: humanistic, personalized, participatory, transformative and innovative. The results its contextualized, flexible, operational, systematic, of research allow us to verify significant changes and transformations qualitative aspects in the performance of the Elam development manager tutor.

Формирование эмоционального благополучия младших школьников через сказкотерапию

The psychological and emotional well-being of children is one of the most discussed problems in modern scientific research. In studies of domestic psychologists, it was found that 37% of children have increased and 16% of children have high general school anxiety. Studying at school, worries about grades and performance are the main reason for increased anxiety among schoolchildren. One of the conditions for the development of a child’s personality is emotional well-being, which can be developed through fairy tale therapy. The fairy tale therapy method allows for the development of the emotional well-being of children, since it uses the metaphorical resources of fairy tales and creates conditions for maintaining a stable emotional-positive state and life satisfaction. The paper sets out to experimentally test the effectiveness of using fairy tale therapy in the formation of the emotional well-being of schoolchildren. The diagnostics selected were: 1) test tasks “The Magical Land of Feelings” (authors: T.D. Zinkevich-Evstigneeva, T.M. Grabenko, D.A. Frolov); 2) SAN test questionnaire (V.A. Doskin’s method). A fairytale therapy program “My Emotions” was created to develop the emotional well-being of elementary school students. The study showed a positive growth trend in the number of children in the experimental group demonstrating emotional well-being, a sense of joy, motivation to study and communicate with peers. The developed program for fairy tale therapy “My Emotions” can be used by primary school teachers to develop the emotional well-being of children in extracurricular activities, and for the professional training of teachers and psychologists.

Challenges and tasks of the philosophy of physical culture and sports, sports science in modern socio-political conditions

The scientific problem lies in the discrepancy between the self-reflective Western and Eastern traditions of the philosophy of sport and the very real sports process and sports science, and, by and large, the classical understanding of the scope and content of the concept of philosophy as such. The relevance of the study lies in the need to eliminate or «remove» this discrepancy, which at three levels openly complicates the development of the philosophy of sport: firstly, as a philosophy in the classical sense of the word; secondly, as a scientific philosophy; and thirdly, as a scientific philosophy of sports and sports science, and not existential, irrational, hermeneutic and other ideas and experiences about philosophizing thoughts about something vaguely reminiscent of them. The purpose of the study is to construct and briefly justify a classification of the scientific philosophy of sports and sports science from the standpoint of classical philosophy and a dialectical-materialistic worldview, as well as to indicate a short list of its main tasks in the current situation of aggravated military-political confrontation between Russia, East and West. The methodology and organization of the study are based on a comprehensive historical, philosophical and scientific theoretical and comparative analysis, including general scientific operations of grouping, systematization, abstraction, idealization and logical operations of defining and dividing concepts, induction, deduction, analogy, determining truth, proof and refutation, constructing a hypothesis. Research results and conclusions. Gradually but steadily growing since the beginning of the 21st century, global changes in the modern socio-political picture of the world are increasingly clearly and rapidly entailing equally significant changes in education and science (including specialized ones). This article presents a system for constructing the philosophy of sport and sports science, which provides a solution to the full range of modern problems of philosophical analysis and scientific research of sport as: • social phenomenon and institution; • cultural and civilizational mechanism of social evolution of humanity; • a mechanism for preserving and improving a person in his inherent parameters of a social and psychophysiological being; • an outpost for preventing the processes of human deanthropolization. It is easy to notice that this system of constructing the philosophy of sport and sports science in many aspects and in terms of system-forming factors differs significantly from its predecessors, at the same time serving as the basis for their scientific and philosophical criticism — criticism that substantiates the urgent need for a radical restructuring of the entire edifice of the philosophy of physical culture and sports, based on from the modern socio-political challenges addressed to her.

Bibliometric Analysis of Scientific Publications on Communicative Behavior Problems

Purpose of research. The purpose of the study is to analyze the dynamics of the publication activity of scientific research in the field of studying communicative behavior. Communicative behavior is an object with an interdisciplinary research status. It falls into the area of research interest of various scientific fields. A bibliometric analysis of publication activity was carried out in connection with solving several tasks: to find out areas of knowledge in which the greatest publication activity is concentrated, to study the methods that are used in various fields of communicative behavior analysis, to identify organizations that are included in this research search.Methods. The study was conducted in two scientific electronic databases: the Russian Scientific Electronic Library Elibrary.ru and the international open platform for researchers and scientific organizations Lens. The bibliometric analysis was used as the research method. It involves the quantification of documentary information flows and it is based on quantitative research indicators reflecting the state of science as a whole or its individual branches.Results. As a result of the bibliometric analysis of publication activity on the problems of scientific research in the field of communicative behavior, communicative behavior in the digital environment and communicative behavior in social networks, a significant increase in publication activity was revealed in both international and Russian information databases over the past 10 years (2013 - 2023). It is also noted that the predominant number of publications on the issues studied is concentrated in the field of psychology. However, we can trace a shift in the focus of foreign research on communicative behavior towards digitalization in information technology, and Russian research towards the field of digital technologies in the educational environment.Conclusion. The results obtained indicate the high relevance, as well as the scientific and practical significance of the research topic on the problems of communicative behavior in general, as well as communicative behavior in the digital environment and social networks, in particular.

Particle Swarm Optimization Based Feature Selection Using Factorial Design

Feature selection, a common and crucial problem in current scientific research, is a crucial data preprocessing technique and a combinatorial optimization task. Feature selection aims to select a subset of informative and appropriate features from the original feature dataset. Therefore, improving performance on the classification task requires processing the original data using a feature selection strategy before the learning process. Particle swarm optimization, one of the metaheuristic algorithms that prevents the growth of computing complexity, can solve the feature selection problem satisfactorily and quickly with appropriate classification accuracy since it has local optimum escape strategies. There are arbitrary trial and error approaches described separately in the literature to determine the critical binary particle swarm optimization parameters, which are the inertial weight, the transfer function, the threshold value, and the swarm size, that directly affect the performance of the binary particle swarm optimization algorithm parameters used in feature selection. Unlike these approaches, this paper enables us to obtain scientific findings by evaluating all binary particle swarm optimization parameters together with the help of a statistically based factorial design approach. The results show how well the threshold and the transfer function have statistically affected the binary particle swarm optimization algorithm performance.

Scientific Research Project Curriculum: A Clever Teaching Method of “Scientific Research Nurturing Teaching”

Higher education shoulders the task of cultivating high-level professionals with innovative spirit and practical ability. Undergraduate education plays a vital role as the beginning of higher education. However, the existing undergraduate teaching content is relatively outdated and the teaching mode is simple, making it difficult to stimulate students’ learning interest and improve their innovative practical ability. The scientific research project curriculum is rich in content and diverse in teaching forms, which can not only expand the teaching mode but also enrich and supplement professional knowledge. In this work, the teaching method of scientific research project curriculum is investigated in the investigated discipline - Material Science and Engineering. It is demonstrated that the introduction of scientific rlesearch project curriculum into undergraduate education or graduate education can help students improve their independent learning enthusiasm, professional practical skills, and innovative thinking abilities in the process of solving practical scientific research problems. Particularly, a project course about electrospun nanofibers is demonstrated to be a facile approach for achieving a comprehensive practice training for students. In a word scientific research project curriculum has proven to be a good teaching method for achieving “scientific research nurturing teaching”.

Tariff setting for solid waste management services in Kazakhstan: problems and ways to solve them

The improvement of the pricing mechanism in the field of solid household waste management (MSW) is due to the need to transition to a sustainable waste management system. The current state of affairs in the field of solid waste management is characterized by chronic underfunding. Regulatory documents on the current regulatory instruments in this area do not fully implement the regulatory impact on the financial provision of the sphere of solid waste management. In this regard, the problem of scientific research and the search for ways to improve the efficiency of the process of tariff formation for solid waste management services is extremely urgent. The article provides a critical analysis of the normative primary sources for calculating the tariff for solid waste management services and determining the norms for the formation and accumulation of municipal waste (CO). The results of experimental author's studies of calculating tariffs and determining norms in retrospect over recent years with the identification of local features in their dynamics are presented, recommendations are given to improve the organization of sample observations in determining norms, as well as determining the volume of waste exported. Based on the logic of the economic factor analysis of the regulatory model of tariff calculation, the problematic provisions of the current methodology for calculating the need for financial resources for the collection and transportation, sorting and disposal of solid waste, determining the annual tariff per unit of solid waste and determining the rate of formation and accumulation of CO, appropriate recommendations have been developed to eliminate the identified problems. The conclusions and recommendations of the study will be useful to state bodies, local representative and executive authorities, economic entities, experts interested in the development of the sphere of solid waste management.

SOLVING PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS IN MATLAB

This paper aims to describe the application of educational tools with which it can develop interactivity and help pupils and students to better and more clearly understand mathematics and to understand that it is all around us, that it is our everyday life. The paper will show the ways of creating mathematical educational materials and their use. The calculation of partial differential equations has a wide application. Many problems in scientific research and engineering can be mathematically modeled by partial differential equations. A differential equation containing multiple independent variables is called a PDE (partial differential equation).

Особенности организационной субкультуры представителей экстремальных профессий

<p style="text-align: justify;">The article is devoted to a review of foreign publications in the field of phenomenology of organizational subculture of employees of high-risk professions. The problems of scientific research in this area are represented in foreign psychology by such vectors as: the study of various problems of the relationship between extreme activity and organizational subculture, assessment of the impact of extremity on the subculture, personal characteristics and behavior of employees. The publications assess the impact of extreme professional activity on the organizational subculture and its main elements, unambiguously linking the conditions of extreme work and the corresponding consequences both at the level of personal or behavioral changes and at the level of subculture. It is shown that the duration of employees' stay in extreme conditions of activity is of no fundamental importance for the organizational subculture in comparison with the severity of the corresponding stress factors, as well as with the nature and characteristics of work. Extremity potentiates the emergence of both positive aspects of the subculture (professional identity, corporate solidarity, etc.) and negative ones (personal distancing, consolidation of the service team on a negative basis, etc.). Foreign approaches to the study of organizational subculture in the field of extreme professions differ significantly from the national ones, based on traditional value-semantic relations both in interpersonal communication and in intra-organizational interaction. The material allows to improve psychopractics in an extreme field of activity.</p>

PROSPECTS FOR COOPERATION BETWEEN GEOLOGICAL MUSEUMS OF UKRAINE AND SPAIN

The publication actualizes issues related to the prospects for geological science development and ways of cooperation between Ukraine and Spain. As part of the bilateral cooperation between these countries, at the end of February 2023, a meeting of geologists was held in Barcelona at one of the leading research institutes in Spain. The main issues discussed were the popularization of geology and the geological museum’s development. The first part of the article contains an overview of the peculiarities of the tectonic structure, stratigraphy, rock complexes, and unique reference sections within Ukraine, which are of world scientific importance. The second part is devoted to the characteristics of the Ukrainian museums of Earth sciences, the problems of modern scientific research, the geological monuments preservation, and strengthening the role of geological museums in popularizing knowledge about the Earth. As a result, joint projects within the framework of international cooperation between Ukraine and Spain are proposed. Cooperation will occur at the level of individual Institutes of Earth Sciences and Natural History Museums, as they store primary geological information. For the accumulation of geological information, its preservation and presentation, it is necessary to unite museums into a single museum space and international museum organizations. To create a general complex multi-level museum database. In addition, cooperation can be manifested in joint expeditions in which factual material can be obtained for further analytical research; in the organization and conduct of joint research, conferences, and educational seminars; in publishing joint scientific works, etc. Such events will contribute to exchanging information/specimens and improving external communication for further developing the museum business, educational and scientific activities in the geological field.

СУСПІЛЬНО КОРИСНА ПРАЦЯ ЗАСУДЖЕНИХ У МІСЦЯХ НЕСВОБОДИ ЯК ЗАСІБ ВИПРАВЛЕННЯ І РЕСОЦІАЛІЗАЦІЇ

This article is about the socially useful work of convicts in places of deprivation of liberty, since this tool plays an important role in the lives of convicts while serving a criminal sentence, it creates certain prerequisites to acquire new work skills and the opportunity for a convict to be paroled from serving a criminal sentence. This article acquires special significance in connection with the ongoing scientific discussion among domestic scientists and practitioners of the penal enforcement system of Ukraine: on the recognition of community service as a right of convicts (Article 8 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of Ukraine); the convict’s participation in socially useful work upon conditionally early release from serving a sentence (Article 81 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine); whether it is possible to consider socially beneficial labor in places of deprivation of liberty as forced. The article emphasizes that the socially beneficial work of convicts in places of deprivation of liberty involves many factors, in particular: how many penal institutions of the State Security Service of Ukraine have their own production; what is the capacity of production facilities where convicts are employed, and what are the working conditions at the factory; whether the rules of labor protection, safety techniques and industrial sanitation, established by the labor legislation, are observed in the places of detention; whether this number of persons is included among those who are involved by the administration of the institution of execution of punishments to work on the improvement of residential and industrial areas of places of detention, adjacent territories and to improve the living and living conditions of convicts, since according to the fifth part of Article 118 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, such convicts are involved without payment work, as a rule, on a first-come, first-served basis, during non-working hours and for no more than two hours a day; is the training of convicts organized for the most widespread professions that are relevant in society and are in high demand (for example, locksmith, plumber, specialist in wood or metal, etc.). It has been proved that the socially beneficial work of convicts in places of deprivation of liberty is an urgent problem of scientific research, domestic scientists of the penitentiary field and practical workers of criminal-executive institutions of the State Security Service of Ukraine. It is noted that the involvement of convicts in community service is primarily an attempt by the administration of penal institutions of all security levels to create favorable conditions: employment of convicts while serving a criminal sentence; timely repayment of the debt owed to the victim of the crime according to the writ of execution; preparation of the convict for reintegration into society after serving the sentence. Based on the results obtained in the course of the scientific research, the following conclusions were made: socially useful work of convicts in places of deprivation of liberty to a certain extent contributes to the psycho-emotional relief of convicts, distracts them from different opinions and conflicts and contributes to correction and resocialization; the conscientious attitude of convicts in places of deprivation of liberty to socially useful work, subject to the fulfillment of other means of correction and resocialization, gives the convict the opportunity to exercise the right to parole; socially useful work of convicts in places of imprisonment creates all the conditions for obtaining useful skills that can positively affect the further work of the convict after release from prisons; socially useful work of convicts in places of deprivation of liberty is a reliable means of their correction and resocialization. Key words: community service, convicts, personnel, places of imprisonment, punishment, correction, resocialization, material support.

The History of International Relations in the Legacy of the Soviet Historian Vladimir M. Khvostov (1905–1972)

In the article, based on a large number of archival documents, some of which were first put into scientific circulation, the research activities and problems of scientific research by V.M.Khvostov are considered. The author analyzed two main directions in the work of the scientist: the history of diplomacy and international relations; problems of general and national history (mainly the events of world wars). The contribution of V.M.Khvostov to the study of this issue is determined, his creative biography is considered as one of the models of the life and career of a scientist in the Soviet political and historiographic space.

The problem of dependence of Arab critical terms on western criticism

The study aimed at explaining one of the problems of the Arab critical terms; namely, its dependence on western criticism. This dependence has led to the instability of critical terms used by Arab critics. The study has found out a range of results: First, the term is the key of science in the Arab tradition; therefore, it is necessary in every critical study. Second, it is one of the obvious scientific research problems that these coming critical terms are regarded as something essential while there are original critical terms in Arab criticism. Third, the critical term has problems such as inaccuracy in the use and selection of these western critical terms, the variety of names of each term, inaccurate translation, and the change of the critical term connotation. Fourth, the Arab criticism has depended on western resources and references in many subjects related to the use of critical term, the form of its meaning, its critical and procedural methods. Finally, Arab critics themselves are different from each other in terms of their understanding of the critical term due to the variation of their cultures and their critical philosophies.

The naturalization of meat consumption and some problems of scientific research

Las investigaciones científicas buscan producir conocimiento objetivo que nos sirva para comprender el mundo, resolver las dudas y las problemáticas que enfrentamos en sociedad. Este tipo de conocimiento ha impactado profundamente nuestra concepción sobre el mundo y sobre nosotros mismos con efectos tanto positivos como negativos. Piénsese, por ejemplo, en la teoría de la evolución, que nos aportó una explicación sobre la diversidad de especies existentes y se integró al acervo intelectual humano como una convención social estableciendo mandatos teleológicos, estéticos y éticos sobre lo que deberíamos de hacer para “respetar nuestra naturaleza”. Con el tiempo, surgieron reelaboraciones de la teoría original darwiniana que critican varias de sus fundamentos teóricos, tales como la interpretación lineal o progresista de la evolución que necesariamente conduciría a organismos más complejos o superiores, y advierten sobre las consecuencias sociales negativas de esos fundamentos que sirvieron para justificar el racismo. En ese sentido, en este ensayo analizo un metaestudio reciente que cuestiona la afirmación de que hay evidencia arqueológica que prueba que el consumo de carne “nos hizo humanos”. A partir de sus críticas, expongo algunos problemas de metodología y de fundamentación teórica que son comunes entre las investigaciones científicas que toman a los seres humanos como objeto de estudio. Además, con el análisis de estas críticas desde la perspectiva de la filosofía y las ciencias sociales, muestro algunos presupuestos epistemológicos, ontológicos, axiológicos y teleológicos con los que se justifican interpretaciones erróneas sobre el consumo de la carne. Específicamente se analizan: el papel que juegan los proxies, la falacia naturalista, la noción de “causalidad”, la definición de “ser humano”, la noción de “lugar de enunciación” del investigador y la dimensión de poder, en la producción de conocimiento.

Possible directions of increasing the efficiency of the health system through software development

In the modern world, software is practically inevitable and present everywhere. Today, software represents the key to the success of most computer systems and at the same time the differentiation factor of the organizations that own it. Software has become an essential component in healthcare decision-making and the basis of scientific research and healthcare problem solving. The development of microprocessors enabled the widespread infiltration of computers into biomedical instruments for measuring, monitoring and displaying a number of parameters in physiology, clinic, radiology, nuclear medicine, laboratories and others. Digital communication techniques have enabled the networking of computers and the exchange of large amounts of information needed by expert systems to improve the quality of decision-making.