Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder Research Articles

Motor performance and daily participation in children with and without probable developmental coordination disorder.

To test the mediating role of motor performance in the relationship between individual and environmental constraints, delayed learning of activities of daily living (ADL), and daily participation in typically developing children and children with probable developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Parents of 370 randomly selected children aged 5 to 10 years (194 females; mean age [SD] 7y 5mo [1y 10mo]) were included in the study (321 typically developing, 49 probable DCD). Motor performance, ADL learning, and participation were assessed using the DCDDaily-Questionnaire. Individual variables included child's age and sex, and environmental variables included mother and family educational level, presence of siblings, and area of residence. Direct, indirect, and mediating effects were tested using a partial least squares-based structural equation modelling approach. The model explained 44.5% of the variance of daily participation. Motor performance significantly mediated the effect of individual and environmental constraints, and ADL learning on daily participation. Results suggest that the effect of individual and environmental constraints and delayed learning of ADL on daily participation is mediated by motor performance in typically developing children and children with probable DCD. These findings provide further evidence that interventions to promote participation in children with probable DCD should adopt ecological, task-oriented approaches. Further studies should evaluate model generalizability with clinical samples.

Top-down Inhibitory Motor Control Is Preserved in Adults with Developmental Coordination Disorder

ABSTRACT Two paradigms were employed to disentangle information processing from executive motor inhibition in adults with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Choice Reaction and Stop Signal Tasks were compared between 13 adults fulfilling DSM-5 DCD criteria and 42 typically developing adults. Additional analyses included 16 probable DCD (pDCD) participants, who had motor difficulties but did not fulfil DSM-5 criteria. Analyses employed frequentist and Bayesian modeling. While DCD+pDCD showed slower reaction times and difficulty initiating Go responses, no impairments in Stop actions were found. These findings indicated no executive deficit in DCD, suggesting that previous results may be explained by inefficient information processing.

Gender and age differences in the presentation of at-risk or probable Developmental Coordination Disorder in adults

BackgroundDevelopmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), also called Dyspraxia, is a common Neurodevelopmental Disorder (NDD) that affects motor coordination with a marked impact on both academic and day-to-day living activities. It is increasingly clear that NDDs such as Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder may present differently in males and females, resulting in underdiagnoses of women and girls. Aims: To consider age and gender differences in the presentation of at-risk and probable DCD. Methods and Procedures: A sample of 1,476 adults aged 16–60 years were surveyed online using the Adult DCD Checklist. Outcomes and resultsWomen with at-risk (n = 1 8 6, 1 6. 6 %) or probable DCD (n = 6 4 3, 5 6. 6 %) reported significantly greater gross motor and non-motor difficulties and significantly greater impact on activities and participation, whereas men with at-risk (n = 58,16.3 %) or probable (n = 177,49.9 %), DCD reported significantly greater fine motor difficulties. Emerging adults (aged 16−25 years) with at-risk (n = 65,14.3 %) or probable (293,64.3 %) DCD reported significantly greater non-motor difficulty than adults (aged 26−60+ years) with at-risk (n = 179,17.5 %) or probable (n = 518, 50.8 %) DCD. Conclusions and implicationsBoth age and gender differences were found in the presentation of at-risk and probable DCD in adults. This may have implications for the development of future DCD assessment tools and for the training of front-line staff who may encounter individuals with DCD throughout their lives, including teachers, doctors and employers’ Human Resources and Occupational Health staff.

【論文摘要】Effects of Health-related Fitness and Motor Skill Training Program in School-aged Children with Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder

Background and Purpose: Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is characterized by impaired motor coordination that involves difficulty in fine motor and gross motor control and interferes with academic performance and activities of daily living. Due to poor motor coordination and inferior motor competence, children with DCD spend less time in physical activities and consequently result in underdeveloped health-related physical fitness and motor skills. However, evidence on the effect of intervention program focusing on both physical fitness and motor skill is limited. In addition, follow-up studies were also sparse. Therefore, the aims of this study were to investigate whether children with probable DCD would improve their motor skills, health-related physical fitness, and physical activity after receiving 8-week health-related physical fitness and motor skill training program, as well as the effects at 8-week follow-up. Methods: Nineteen children with probable DCD (≤ 15 percentile on Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition, MABC-2) aged 6 to 11 years were recruited and received 40-minute physical fitness and motor skill intervention twice a week for 8 week. All subjects were collected for their basic data and were assessed for outcome measurements at pretest, posttest, and 8-week follow-up. Outcome measures included the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2), Weight-Length Index (WLI), 6-minute walk test (6MWT), sit and reach, 1-minute sit-ups, and physical activity assessed using Actigraph® GT3 triaxial accelerometers. Results: Significant improvement in motor skills (manual coordination, body coordination, strength, and agility components in BOT- 2) were found after the training (all p ＜ 0.01) and the effect was maintained at follow-up (all p ＜ 0.007). Body composition was significantly improved after 8-week intervention (p = 0.035) but revealed regression at follow-up (p = 0.013). However, only a positive trend was found for the effect on muscle strength and endurance, proportion of overweight, average physical activity, and percentage of moderate to vigorous physical activities (MVPA%) after intervention (all p ＞ 0.05). Conclusion: Intervention program that consisted of both health-related physical fitness and motor skill training lasting for 8 weeks had significant positive impact on motor skills in children with probable DCD and the effect still could be observed after 8 weeks post intervention. However, the positive impact on body composition could only be seen during intervention period. Clinical Relevance: Our findings support the use of health-related physical fitness and motor skill intervention program for children with probable DCD to improve their motor and physical fitness outcomes.

Developmental Coordination Disorder, Motor Performance, and Daily Participation in Children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder.

Children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often present with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) or motor coordination problems that further impact their daily functioning. However, little is known about the prevalence of co-occurring DCD and ADHD in the Spanish context, and research about the impact of ADHD on performance and participation in motor-based activities of daily living (ADL) is scarce. The aims of this study were to explore the prevalence of co-occurring DCD in children with ADHD, and to examine differences in performance and participation in motor-based ADL between children with ADHD and typically developing children. We conducted a case-control study including 20 children with ADHD and 40 typically developing controls randomly matched for exact age and sex (males = 80%; mean age = 8, 9 (2, 3) years). Presence of probable DCD (p-DCD) was confirmed with the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ). The DCDDaily-Q was administered to assess performance and participation in ADL. A 75% prevalence of p-DCD was found in the ADHD group (OR = 27; p < 0.001). Children with ADHD showed poorer motor performance and less participation in ADL (p < 0.01; d = 0.9–1.4). These findings contribute to understand the functional consequences of ADHD in motor-based ADL and its relationship with DCD.

Emotional and behavioral problems in Japanese preschool children with motor coordination difficulties: the role of autistic traits.

There has been little research on whether younger children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) symptoms have an increased risk for emotional and behavioral problems. This study examined whether coordination difficulties are associated with emotional and behavioral problems (emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity/inattention, peer problems, reduced prosocial behavior) in preschool children and the role of autistic traits in this association. Data (N = 1042, age 58-71months) were analyzed from the Tama Children's Survey (TCS). The Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (LDCDQ) was used to measure coordination difficulty symptoms. Information was obtained on emotional/behavioral problems using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and on autistic traits with the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). Higher autistic traits were based on SRS cutoff scores (53.5 for boys and 52.5 for girls). Logistic regression analysis was used to assess associations between the variables. In adjusted models, children with probable DCD (pDCD) were significantly more likely to score above the clinical thresholds on all SDQ emotional/behavioral domains. However, nearly all of these associations became nonsignificant after including autistic traits in the analysis. Additional analyses showed that children with pDCD with higher autistic traits had significantly increased odds for emotional problems (odds ratio [OR]: 4.47, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.52-13.19), hyperactivity/inattention (OR: 3.74, 95% CI: 1.45-9.64), peer problems (OR: 15.81, 95% CI: 5.96-41.99), and total difficulties (OR: 28.78, 95% CI: 7.23-114.57), compared to children with pDCD alone. These results indicate that the increased risk of emotional/behavioral difficulties in preschool children with pDCD might be mediated by autistic traits.

Long-Term Effects of a Movement Intervention Program for Children With Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder

Purpose: To examine long-term effects of a task-oriented intervention program for children with probable developmental coordination disorder in a physical education setting. Method: Sixty-nine boys and girls (7–10 years) were divided into two groups: intervention (n = 36) and control (n = 33). All children participated in physical education classes twice a week. The intervention group also had two weekly sessions focused on gross motor skills development for 12 weeks. Children were assessed by the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2, three times: pretest, posttest, and follow-up. Results: The intervention group showed superior results (p ≤ .05) posttest in: manual dexterity (d = 0.71), balance (d = 0.86), and total score (d = 1.02), and at follow-up in: manual dexterity (d = 1.05), balance (d = 0.86), and total score (d = 0.94). Conclusion: Task-oriented intervention provided a retained positive effect in the development of motor competence in children with probable developmental coordination disorder.

Autonomous nervous system modulation in supine and standing postures in children with probable developmental coordination disorder

BackgroundChildren with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) are known to have poor physical fitness and psychosocial problems. The autonomous nervous system (ANS) plays an essential role in the regulation of human neurophysiological processes. Inadequate ANS modulation has been associated with harmful health conditions such as poor aerobic power, high body mass index, and symptoms of stress and anxiety. Modulation of ANS in children with DCD needs to be further investigated taking into consideration variables that may influence its function. For instance, would the level of physical fitness or the symptoms of stress and anxiety affect the ANS modulation of children with DCD? AimsTo examine the ANS modulation during supine and standing postures, and stress/anxiety with questionnaire data from children with probable-DCD (p-DCD). Methodsand procedures: Thirty children, 8–12 years old, composed two groups paired by age, gender, peak volume of oxygen uptake (aerobic power), and body mass index (BMI): p-DCD (9 boys, mean age 10.8 y) and typically developing (TD). Both groups were compared for stress/anxiety assessment by questionnaire and spectral, symbolic, and complexity heart rate variability (HRV) analyses during posture changes. Outcomes and resultsp-DCD group showed higher stress symptoms than TD group for stress/anxiety assessment in the questionnaire's data, but HRV analyses showed no differences between the two groups. Both groups showed parasympathetic prevalence during supine posture and sympathetic prevalence during standing posture. Conclusions and implicationsChildren with p-DCD had similar autonomic control function as TD children during posture change (supine to standing). Symptoms of stress and anxiety demonstrated by p-DCD did not impact their ANS modulation. These results indicate that aerobic power and BMI are probable protective factors of ANS modulation for these children.

Exergaming for children with probable developmental coordination disorder (p-DCD)/DCD

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in English; abstract also in Chinese.&#x0D; The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of exergaming for improving balance, eye–hand coordination (EHC), and exercise enjoyment among children with special educational needs (SEN) and probable developmental coordination disorder (p-DCD). This study adopted a single-group intervention with paired results. Nine primary school students (seven boys and two girls, aged 7–10 years) were recruited and underwent a 3-month exergaming intervention involving three 30-minute sessions per week. Xbox One Kinect was used under the supervision of the researchers and physical education (PE) teachers. Pre- and post-intervention scores were calculated for data analysis. Motor performance was assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children – Second Edition Test. The participants’ gaming experiences were captured using Fun Toolkit. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test showed significant improvements in balance and EHC, but no significant differences in enjoyment scores. The findings indicated a positive impact of exergaming on primary school students with SEN and motor problems. The outcomes indicate that exergaming is an effective strategy for improving motor skills in children with SEN and p-DCD/DCD. Therefore, exergaming could be incorporated into PE curricula to motivate students to participate in physical activities in order to improve their physical health and well-being.&#x0D; 本研究探討虛擬遊戲對改善有特殊教育需要（SEN）和（潛在）發育協調障礙的兒童的平衡、眼手協調和享受運動的功效。九名小學生參加為期三個月，每週三次30分鐘的訓練。訓練前後的遊戲分數、運動表現和遊戲體驗都被分析。研究結果顯示平衡力和眼手協調顯著地改善，但享受度沒有明顯差異。這說明虛擬遊戲對有SEN和動作協調問題的小學生有積極影響，改善運動技能。因此，將這納入體育課程，可鼓勵學生參加體能活動，改善身心健康。

A longitudinal examination of enjoyment of physical education in children with developmental coordination disorder through a physical literacy lens

By using children with developmental coordination disorder as a case study, the current study examines how several core domains of physical literacy interact and change over time in relation to enjoyment of physical education. Data from 2278 children (5% identified as probable development coordination disorder) were collected across six time points. Mixed effects models were conducted to examine the changes within and between individuals over time. A three-way interaction between perceived adequacy, time and probable developmental coordination disorder was found and indicated that the largest predictor of enjoyment was perceived adequacy (coefficient = .018, p < .01). The findings highlight the importance of fostering a physical education environment which is non-judgemental, positive, and encourages individual growth, as these are the greatest avenue for improving perceived adequacy and therefore, enjoyment.

Psychometric Validation and Reference Norms for the European Spanish Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire: DCDQ-ES.

The Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ) is a widely used and well-validated tool that contributes to the diagnosis of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). The aim of this study was to further analyze the psychometric properties of the European Spanish cross-culturally adapted version of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ-ES) in a sample of Spanish children aged 6–11 years and to establish reference norms with respect to age groups. Parents of 540 typically developing children completed the DCDQ-ES. A second sample of 30 children with probable DCD (pDCD) was used to test its discriminant validity. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the original three-factor structure and the internal consistency was excellent (Cronbach’s α = 0.907). Significant differences between age groups were found. The pDCD group scored significantly lower than the reference sample in the three subscales and DCDQ-ES total score (p < 0.001; AUC = 0.872). The DCDQ-ES is a reliable and valid tool for screening motor coordination difficulties in Spanish children and for identifying children with probable DCD. The findings of this research suggest that context-specific cut-off scores should be systematically utilized when using cross-cultural adaptations of the DCDQ. Age-specific cut-off scores for Spanish children are provided.

Self-perceptions in children with probable developmental coordination disorder with and without overweight

BackgroundChildren with probable developmental coordination disorder (pDCD) experience motor problems that negatively influence their self-perceptions and increase the risk to develop overweight due to physical inactivity. Whether overweight in children with pDCD has an additional impact on their self-perceptions is unclear. Insight in this impact would provide vital information for diagnostics and interventions to enhance physical activity in children with pDCD and overweight. AimsInvestigate differences in self-perceptions between children with pDCD and overweight (pDCD-O), children with pDCD without overweight (pDCD-NO), and typically developing children (TD). Methods and proceduresA total of 366 children (188 boys/178 girls), aged between 7 and 13 years, participated in this study. Thirteen children were categorized as pDCD-O, 51 children as pDCD-NO, and 302 children as TD. Self-perceptions were assessed with the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Outcomes and resultsChildren with pDCD-O perceived themselves lower in social acceptance than children with pDCD-NO and TD children. Children with pDCD-NO perceived themselves lower in athletic competence than TD children, but not than children with pDCD-O. No differences were found for perceived physical appearance and global self-esteem. Conclusions and implicationsOverweight has an additional negative impact on perceived social acceptance in children with pDCD.

Effect of volume of practice in children with probable Developmental Coordination Disorder

Abstract Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) demonstrate a slower and more gradual ability to acquire and learn motor skills with practice. One question then is whether a higher volume of practice for these children could match the performance of children with typical development (TD). The present study aims to examine the effects of a higher volume of practice by children with probable DCD (pDCD) in relation to a lower volume of practice by children with TD. The MABC-2 was used to identify the participants' level of motor difficulty and set the composition of the groups. Two active video games (Nintendo Wii) were used for the practice. Each group was composed of eight participants, paired up by gender and age, TD (M = 111.87 months; SD = 4.05) and pDCD (M = 115.87 months; SD = 4.96). The TD group participated in seven practice sessions and the pDCD group participated in eleven sessions. Results regarding performance on Wii console games showed significant improvement from the first day of practice to the last day in both groups (pDCD and TD). A higher volume of practice for children with pDCD compared to their TD peers helped to increase the performance of the former group. Therefore, the pDCD group achieved a performance similar to the TD group in both practiced games.

Can the Finger-Nose-Finger Task Be Used to Identify School-aged Children with Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder?

ABSTRACT This study aimed to investigate whether the Finger-Nose-Finger (FNF) task could be a potential test to identify school-aged children with probable Developmental Coordination Disorder (pDCD) from a large population. This study recruited 1365 nine to twelve years old children, 362 of whom were identified as pDCD using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC) test. An instrument was designed to conduct the FNF task. The times performed by the dominant hand (DH) and the non-dominant hand (NDH) in 30 seconds were recorded, as well as the Sum of both hands. The results showed that school-aged children with pDCD had significantly poor performance on DH, NDH, and Sum of the FNF task compared to typically developing children (all p’s <.001). However, the FNF task showed low sensitivity (24.9%) and low diagnostic rate (65.7%) against the MABC test, even though there was a significant moderate correlation between both tests (r = −.300, p < .001). Taken together, even though school-aged children with pDCD perform worse on the FNF task, this task may not be sensitive enough to identify children with pDCD. Other testing items assessing other motor aspects, specifically balance, should be included and validated.

A comparison of using the DSM-5 and MABC-2 for estimating the developmental coordination disorder prevalence in Korean children

BackgroundPrevious literature has shown inconsistency in the prevalence of developmental coordination disorder (DCD). The Movement Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (MABC-2) is often used for DCD prevalence studies, although the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) recommends four criteria. AimsThe purpose of this study was to compare the prevalence of DCD in Korean children using the DSM-5 and MABC-2. MethodsA total of 548 Korean elementary school students (mean age: 8.5 years ± 4.5 months) completed this study procedure. All four criteria defined by the DSM-5 were used to classify children with DCD. MABC-2 test scores were used to classify students into four subgroups: high-risk DCD, mild-risk DCD, probable DCD and typical development. ResultsCohen’s kappa revealed that the estimates of DCD prevalence were not significantly different between MABC-2 and DSM-5. When DSM-5 criteria were applied, 60 children out of 548 were classified as probable DCD (10.94%) compared to 70 children with probable DCD (12.77%) when MABC-2 was used. ConclusionsDCD prevalence based on DSM-5 is not significantly different from MABC-2, though it tends to estimate less than MABC-2. Future studies should consider our findings when selecting an assessment tool.

Children’s Repetitive and Intermittent Sprinting Performance (CRISP) Test: A new field-based test for assessing anaerobic power and repeated sprint performance in children with developmental coordination disorder

BackgroundEvidence on anaerobic power and sprinting performance of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is limited. AimsThe primary aim of this study was to investigate if the Children’s Repetitive and Intermittent Sprinting Performance (CRISP) test could induce fatigue among participants. Secondly, the study examined the construct validity of the test in children with probable DCD (p-DCD) and typically developing (TD) peers. Methods and proceduresThe study was carried out in two phases. In phase 1, we compared performance of 25 children (7–12 years) on the CRISP test to their performance on the Muscle Power Sprint test (MPST). For phase 2, forty-six (n = 46) participants with p-DCD were matched with TD children (n = 46) on age, weight and sex. Anaerobic performance of participants was assessed using the CRISP test, 10 × 5 m sprints straight and slalom tests, side jumps, stepping on platform task and the ladder agility test. Outcomes and resultsPhase 1: The increase in running time on the CRISP test was greater than on the MPST, indicating that the CRISP test was more fatiguing than the MPST. Phase 2: Children with p-DCD had poorer anaerobic capacity (muscle power, muscle endurance) compared to their TD peers. However, fatigue was comparable between the two groups. The differences in performance between p-DCD and TD children were found to be greater for tests with more agility elements. Conclusions and implicationsThe findings showed that CRISP test could induce fatigue in children. The CRISP test was also found to have positive construct (i.e. known-group) validity. The differences in muscle power and endurance between children with p-DCD and TD peers tend to widen when assessments are performed with tests having high agility components.

Assessing the Validity of Standing Long Jump to Predict Muscle Power in Children With and Without Motor Delays.

To determine the validity of standing long jump (SLJ) for predicting muscle power in children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD). A total of 589 children were recruited as part of the Coordination and Activity Tracking in CHildren study (251 girls and 338 boys; mean age 59.2 mo). Children were classified as typically developing (>16th percentile), at risk for DCD (sixth to 16th percentile), or probable DCD (<sixth percentile) based on Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition scores. SLJ was measured from the back of the heel. Peak power and mean power over 10 seconds and 30 seconds were measured using the Wingate test. SLJ was moderately correlated with peak and mean powers in all groups (R = .51-.55). Regression analysis showed that when combined with weight and age, SLJ performance could predict peak power and mean power over 10 seconds and 30 seconds in typically developing children (adjusted R2 = .68, .61, and .58, P < .001, respectively) and in children with risk for DCD (adjusted R2 = .74, .65, and .60, respectively) and probable DCD (adjusted R2 = .68, .61, and .59, respectively). SLJ, in combination with weight and age, may be used to measure muscle power in typically developing children, and in children with risk for DCD and probable DCD. This measure can be used as an inexpensive estimate of musculoskeletal fitness in children regardless of motor abilities.

Hypermobility, developmental coordination disorder and physical activity in an Irish paediatric population.

The primary aim of the study was to explore the prevalence of generalized joint hypermobility (GJH) and generalized hypermobility spectrum disorder (gHSD) using the new classification system in a community paediatric physiotherapy service in Ireland. The second aim was to explore the relationship between GJH, gHSD and physical activity level, while considering the association of probable developmental coordination disorder (pDCD). A case-controlled cross-sectional study of children aged 6-12 years, recruited from the community paediatric physiotherapy department (n = 32) and a local school (n = 41), was carried out. A Beighton score of ≥6/9 distinguished GJH. The new framework for hypermobility spectrum disorder (HSD) was used. Self-reported physical activity level was measured using the Physical Activity Questionnaire-Older Children. A parent-reported validated questionnaire screened for pDCD. The prevalence of GJH was 21.9% of children attending physiotherapy. One child in the physiotherapy group was identified as having gHSD, with a prevalence of 3.1%. There was no significant difference in physical activity level between children with and without GJH attending physiotherapy (independent samples t-test, p = 0.28). Probable developmental coordination disorder (pDCD) was observed in 71.9% of children attending physiotherapy. There was no significant difference in the number of children with pDCD in those with and without GJH (Fisher's exact test, p = 0.370). This study was the first to explore the prevalence of GJH and gHSD in the paediatric physiotherapy population in Ireland. The presence of GJH did not affect self-reported physical activity level or motor coordination in children attending physiotherapy.

Adults with probable developmental coordination disorder selectively process early visual, but not tactile information during action preparation. An electrophysiological study

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition affecting motor coordination in children and adults. Here, EEG signals elicited by visual and tactile stimuli were recorded while adult participants with and without probable DCD (pDCD) performed a motor task. The task cued reaching movements towards a location in visible peripersonal space as well as an area of unseen personal space. Event-related potentials elicited by visual and tactile stimuli revealed that visual processing was strongly affected by movement preparation in the pDCD group, even more than in controls. However, in contrast to the controls, tactile processing in unseen space was unaffected by movement preparation in the pDCD group. The selective use of sensory information from vision and proprioception is fundamental for the adaptive control of movements, and these findings suggest that this is impaired in DCD. Additionally, the pDCD group showed attenuated motor rhythms (beta: 13–30 Hz) over sensorimotor regions following cues to prepare movements towards unseen personal space. The results reveal that individuals with pDCD exhibit differences in the neural mechanisms of spatial selection and action preparation compared to controls, which may underpin the sustained difficulties they experience. These findings provide new insights into the neural mechanisms potentially disrupted in this highly prevalent disorder.

Physical activity in young children at risk for developmental coordination disorder.

To examine cross-sectional differences in patterns of daily physical activity accumulation between preschool children at risk for developmental coordination disorder (DCD) compared to typically developing children. In total, 514 children (292 males, 222 females; 4-5y) were recruited as part of the Coordination and Activity Tracking in CHildren (CATCH) study. Motor competence was assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition; children scoring ≤5th centile comprised the probable DCD group (pDCD, n=87), between the 6th and 16th centile were considered to be at risk for DCD (rDCD, n=149), and >16th centile were considered typically developing (n=278). Seven-day physical activity was measured using hip-worn accelerometers. Average daily intensity of activity, frequency, and duration of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) bouts, and triaxial activity counts per minute were determined. No differences in daily activity in any intensity or axis of movement were found among the three groups. However, young children with pDCD accumulated their MVPA in slightly shorter bouts compared to typically developing children. Young children at risk for DCD are not yet in an activity deficit. This may be because of the low motor skill demands of play in this age group. Early motor interventions may be able to promote continued physical activity participation in children with DCD. Preschool children at risk for developmental coordination disorder (DCD) are not less active than their peers. Overall intensity and frequency of daily activity bouts are similar among motor groups. Children with probable DCD accumulate their activity in shorter bouts.