Probability Proportional To Size Research Articles

Social capital and gender inequality among rural elderly in Bangladesh: A micro-survey perspective

This paper explored the dynamics of gender inequality among the elderly, particularly in the context of social capital. A cross-sectional survey is employed targeting individuals aged 60 and above in rural areas of Bangladesh. Initially, one union (Tentulia Union) in Manda Upazila was selected, followed by five wards from that union using a simple random sampling method. Subsequently, data were collected from 404 elderly individuals in the selected wards using probability proportion to size (PPS) sampling. Findings show that females are more likely to experience weaker social capital compared to their male counterparts. This gender disparity in social capital has significant implications for the well-being of elderly women. Weak social capital can lead to increased feelings of loneliness, social isolation, and a lack of access to social support, all of which are critical factors in the mental and physical health of the elderly population. Therefore, addressing gender inequality in social capital among the elderly is crucial for promoting equitable aging and enhancing the overall quality of life for the elderly.

Diversity and ethnobotanical study of homegarden plants in Goba district, Oromia region, Ethiopia

Homegardens are one of the most diverse agroforestry systems and make a vital contribution to meeting various household needs, especially for smallholder farmers in developing countries. The aim of this study was to record the diversity and use of homegarden plant species in the Goba District. The households were randomly selected from five kebeles, with the number selected proportionate to the size of each kebele using the probability proportional to size (PPS) calculation. Seventy-one homegarden owners were chosen for the detailed study and data collection. Of the fifteen kebeles in the Goba District, five kebeles were chosen at random. Observations, semi-structured interviews, preference rating, direct matrix rankings, and paired comparisons were the methods used to gather ethno-botanical data. Descriptive statistical approaches, including density, frequency, relative frequency, relative density, and the Shannon and Wiener indices for species diversity were used to analyze the data. A total of 67 plant species belonging to 31 families were identified. Of the 67 plant species, 36 (or 54%) were herbs, 15 (or 22%) were tree species, 22% shrubs, and 2% were climbers. Twenty-eight (20.8%) species collected from homegardens had food and forage value, 17 (25.3%) had fence value, 12 (18%) had shade value, and 23 (34.3%) had medicinal value; moreover, 90% of the homes had home gardens, indicating that farmers value gardening plants that helps improve household food security and revenue generation. The involvement of the local population and government institutions in providing awareness through instruction or training on the sustainable use and management of plant resources is vital to conserve homegarden plants.

Maternal childhood polyvictimization and neglect of their children: Evidence among Salar Muslim women

BackgroundLimited research has been conducted on child neglect among ethnic minority groups in China. The Salar, a Turkic-Muslim ethnic minority predominantly residing in western China, face unique challenges in this regard. Influenced by their ethnicity, Islam, and Chinese Confucianism, Salar women are particularly vulnerable to various forms of childhood victimization. These victimizations further compound the difficulties they face in providing adequate care for their children. ObjectiveThe 3-D polyvictimization theory introduced three key concepts to measure polyvictimization: invasiveness, exploitativeness, and severity. These concepts aim to provide a nuanced understanding of an individual’s victimization experiences. In light of this theory, this study aims to test a hypothesis regarding the relationship between childhood polyvictimization experienced by Salar mothers and the neglect of their children. MethodA probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling approach was used to collect a random representative multi-stage cluster sample of 201 married Salar women in 2022. Random effects Poisson regression models were used to test the five hypotheses. ResultsThe participants reported a 65.6% rate of child neglect, and all the mothers included in the study had a history of childhood polyvictimization. The Poisson regression in the main effect model demonstrated that invasive and exploitative of the childhood polyvictimization are associated with child neglect. Moreover, a two-way interaction between invasiveness and exploitativeness, as well as exploitativeness and severity of the childhood polyvictimization, showed a strong positive association with child neglect. Lastly, a three-way interaction involving invasiveness, exploitativeness, and severity of the childhood polyvictimization was also strongly positively associated with child neglect. ConclusionsThis research indicates that a history of maternal childhood polyvictimization is associated with an increased risk of child neglect, especially when the experiences of polyvictimization involved high levels of invasiveness and exploitativeness. It emphasizes the importance of considering the nuanced nature of polyvictimization in understanding its relationship with child neglect.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS AND BURDEN OF MORBIDITY: A COMMUNITY-BASED CROSSSECTIONAL STUDY IN A RURAL BLOCK OF WEST BENGAL

Objective: Agriculture is one of the most hazardous occupations in developing and industrialized countries. Most agricultural workers in developing countries have poor housing conditions and an inadequate diet and are exposed to both general and occupational diseases. The study was undertaken to find out the prevalence of occupational morbidity and its associated risk factors among agricultural workers in a rural Block of West Bengal. Methods: The study was conducted among agriculture workers of Habra Block-I of the state of West Bengal. Multistage random sampling method was followed to select a total of 302 individuals who were distributed among the four villages according to the Probability Proportional to Size (PPS) method. Results: The majority of workers (58.6%) were suffering from nutritional pallor/anemia and dental carries/dental stains were 45.4%. Among other morbidities, 42% of workers were suffering from respiratory morbidity, 26.8% of workers were suffering from cardiovascular diseases, and 26.5% were suffering from hypertension. Duration of work (more than 8 h/day) was significantly associated with morbidity also other covariates such as age, sex, type of family, smoking status, and alcohol consumption had significant effects on morbidity among agriculture workers in both bivariate and multivariable linear regression. Conclusion: This research revealed not only the high prevalence of morbidities among the study population but also the occurrence of a large population with modifiable risk factors such as alcohol consumption, smoking, high load and long duration of work, poor personal hygiene, and non-use of personal protection equipment; the latter, if taken care, will reduce the morbidities of the agriculture workers.

HIV Sero-Prevalence among Tuberculosis Patients in Bangladesh: a nationwide cross-sectional study

Introduction Bangladesh is committed to achieving the SDG target of ending the tuberculosis epidemic and achieving UHC by 2030. To inform policy and program decision-making, this nationwide sero-survey of HIV among tuberculosis patients was conducted. Methods The cross-sectional survey utilized a two-stage probability proportional to size (PPS) systematic random sampling technique for selected TB reporting centers (TRCs) from June 2020 to December 2021. The estimated 12,065 diagnosed tuberculosis patients, according to the NTP diagnostic algorithm, irrespective of age and sex, were included. The required information was collected through face-to-face interviews and record reviews using a pre-tested electronic TAB-based semi-structured questionnaire. With all aseptic precautions for all respondents who gave consent, 5 ml. venous blood was collected for the standard confirmatory test by 4th generation ELISA method for detection of antibody of HIV1/2/P24 antigen. Results Out of 12,065 TB patients surveyed, most of them were from the Dhaka division (25%), urban (76%), 55 years and above (28%), male (56%), married (82%), illiterate (36%) and living in a nuclear family (70%). A total of 12 (0.1%) HIV-positive cases were found among TB patients across the country, and the majority (33%) of them belonged to the age group of 35 to 44 years, male (58%), lower educational group (67%), urban resident (67%), and from nuclear family (77%). The HIV-positive patients found more among pulmonary TB patients (83%) who were detected bacteriologically positive (58%) but smear and gene expert negative (75%). Among them, none was found to have progressed to drug-resistant TB. Conclusion HIV affects the immune system, and TB is one of the leading causes of death in HIV-infected people. Although the rate is low, there is a need for continued efforts to prevent and treat TB in Bangladesh, particularly among older age groups, urban residents, and those with co-morbidities such as diabetes.

Calibration estimation of population total using multi-auxiliary information in the presence of non-response

This paper considers the problem of estimation of the population total under probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling scheme when complete data is not available due to the presence of missing observations or non-response. The suggested estimators are developed based on available multi-auxiliary information for the response group and non-response group utilizing the calibration approach. The variances of the suggested estimators have been derived up to the first order of approximation. A simulation study done on a real dataset using R software also supports the performance of the suggested estimators. The empirical percentage absolute relative biases (%ARB) and percentage relative root mean squared errors (%RRMSE) are computed for the suggested estimators. The developed estimators are compared with the estimators of the population total due to the design-based Horvitz and Thompson (HT) estimator and calibration HT type estimator obtained on the available complete response units along with the design-based Hansen and Hurwitz (HH) estimator in the presence of non-response.

Maternal victimization and neglected offspring: Child marriage, IPV and depression symptoms among Salar Muslim women

BackgroundChild neglect is prevalent in western rural China, yet there is limited research among ethnic minority communities. The Salar, a Turkic-Muslim ethnic minority residing primarily in western China, also face this specific problem. The group is deeply influenced by ethnicity, Islam and Chinese Confucianism, which in turn makes women vulnerable to child marriage and IPV. These victimizations, coupled with various life stressors, further complicate the challenges of providing adequate care for their children. ObjectiveThis study hypothesizes a relationship between child neglect and maternal child marriage, IPV victimization, and depression symptoms. Participants and setting201 married Salar women from five villages in Xunhua Salar Autonomous County, China, were randomly selected to participate in the study. MethodA probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling approach was used to collect a random representative multi-stage cluster sample in 2022. Random effects Poisson regression models were used to test the hypotheses. ResultsThe participants reported a 65.6 % rate of child neglect and a 30.8 % rate of IPV in the past year. 37.6 % experienced child marriage. Results revealed significant associations between child neglect and child marriage, IPV, and depression symptoms. A two-way interaction between IPV and depression symptoms was strongly positively associated with child neglect. ConclusionsThis research indicates that Salar Muslim mothers who have experienced child marriage, adulthood victimization, and depression are at a higher risk of neglecting their children. The findings represent a valuable initial step toward researching and addressing the protection needs of women and children from Muslim ethnic minorities in China.

Measure Constraints Faced by Farm Women Using ICT Tools by Garett Ranking Method

Traditionally the extension services have focused on male farmers. In the last few decades the concern regarding farm women have been raised globally. There is immediate need to equip these farm women with relevant knowledge and skill. It is only possible if appropriate and relevant Information communication technology (ICT) tools are made available to farm women to get information related to agriculture. The present study was conducted in the Udham Singh Nagar district of Uttarakhand state to identify the constraints faced by farm women while using ICT tools. Garrett ranking was used. For this study, respondents were selected by using a Probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling method. To derive the inferences of the study, two blocks were selected for the present study. The study covered four villages & it covered 120 farm women in the selected villages. Data for the study was collected during 2019-20. Primary data was collected from farm women through personal interview method with the help of a pretested schedule. The main personal constraints noticed were lack of preference in using Information communication technology (ICT), lack of training, lack of confidence, lack of motivation and lack of time to utilize Information communication technology (ICT). The main technological constraints were language problem to use Information communication technology (ICT), complex nature of Information communication technology (ICT) restricted availability and restricted accessibility to Information communication technology (ICT) tools. The main cultural constraints were lack of faith in Information communication technology (ICT) tools, traditional belief in the existing system, discouragement from the family and society. The main infrastructural barriers were poor electricity services and poor network connectivity.

Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with bovine tuberculosis in cattle in Eastern Bhutan.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is a chronic zoonotic disease affecting cattle of all age groups including wild animals. It poses a significant threat to public health and high economic losses to dairy farmers. While the disease has been eradicated from most of the developed countries through extensive surveillance, testing and culling strategy, it is endemic in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East countries. Currently, there is limited research regarding the prevalence of bTB in cattle in Bhutan. This study aimed to determine the seroprevalence of bTB in cattle in six districts of eastern Bhutan. A two-stage probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling strategy was used to determine the number of animals from which serum samples needed to be collected in each district and sub-district. All farms and cattle for sampling were randomly selected from the data in the annual livestock census of 2020. The samples were tested using bTB ELISA test kit. The seroprevalence and their 95% confidence intervals were calculated. Logistic regression models were constructed to assess the influence of various individual animal and environmental risk factors (breed, age, sex, source of animal, body condition scores of animals, respiratory system status) associated with sero-positivity in animals. The study revealed an apparent seroprevalence of 2.57% (25/971 cattle; 95% CI:1.58-3.57), with an estimated true seroprevalence of 0.91% (95% CI: 0.0-2.81). However, none of the variables were found to be significantly associated with bTB seroprevalence in cattle. We recommend, further sampling and employment of confirmatory testing to fully ascertain the extent of bTB in the cattle herds in eastern Bhutan for prevention and control.

Spatial and emotional distances in parent-child relationships: Impacts on human capital development in rural Chinese boarding children

BackgroundThe policy of merging remote rural elementary schools into centralized villages has led to the emergence of boarding schools as an essential means of providing compulsory education in rural areas of China. As boarding children reside in schools for extended periods, parents' influence on their human capital development is inevitably specificity. The development of rural boarding children is a serious social issue in China, and parent–child distance plays a crucial role in affecting the development of children's human capital. ObjectiveWhile previous studies have focused on the relationship between parental absence and the development of human capital in rural boarding children, this study examines the effects of both spatial and emotional distance between parents and children on the human capital of rural boarding children. Participants and settingA stratified, multi-stage probabilities proportional to size (PPS) sampling method was used, and self-report questionnaires were completed by 2397 rural boarding children (54.2 % males; ages 12 to 18, M = 14.66, SD = 1.30). MethodsChildren's background, family, and school and teacher characteristics were used as control variables. An OLS regression model was used to assess the effects of parent–child spatial and emotional distance on the human capital of rural boarding children, and a CMP–OLS regression model was used to address endogeneity using parents' self-assessed family economic conditions as instrumental variables. ResultsParent–child spatial distance had a significant positive effect (p < 0.05, p < 0.05), and emotional distance had a significant negative effect (p < 0.05, p < 0.01) on the cognitive and non-cognitive abilities development of rural boarding children. Living with grandparents heightened the negative effect on non-cognitive abilities development. ConclusionsThe findings of this study strengthen the link between parent–child distance and rural boarding children and the moderating impact of living with grandparents on the effect of parent–child distance on rural boarding children's human capital providing new insights for promoting the development of rural boarding children. It also highlights the detrimental effects of emotional neglect on rural boarding children's development. This is important for realizing China's rural revitalization strategy and the healthy development of disadvantaged children in rural areas.

IJCM_409A: Prevalence And Pattern of Self-Medication With Antibiotics: A Community- Based Cross-Sectional Study From South-East Delhi

Background: Antibiotics are commonly self-medicated drugs worldwide, with over 50% purchased and used without a prescription. Antibiotic resistance has emerged as a global public health concern. Although many studies have been conducted worldwide to study the prevalence and pattern of self-medication with antibiotics and associated socio-demographic factors (SMA), very few have been conducted in India, and no such studies have been conducted in Delhi in community setup, especially in post-pandemic setup. Objective: 1. To estimate the prevalence and pattern of self-medication with antibiotics among the adults residing in the field practice areas of a medical college in South-East Delhi. 2. To determine the socio-demographic factors and their association with self-medication with antibiotics among the study subjects. Methodology: A cross-sectional analytical study was conducted in South-East Delhi. The sample size was calculated as 200 considering an absolute error of 5% at a 95% level of significance. Simple random sampling was done to select households by using a Random number generator. The total sample size of 200 was distributed proportionately between the UHTC and RHTC, according to Probability Proportional to Size (PPS). One individual from each selected household of age = 18 years who has used antibiotics in the past 3 months and met the eligibility criteria was included in the study. A self-designed, pre-tested, validated, structured questionnaire was used to collect the data. Results: 71(35%) out of 200 of the participants practiced SMA. Nearly 42% of them lived in urban areas. 30% had an education level of high school and above. The Chi-square test revealed that the participant’s level of education was significantly associated with SMA. The frequency of SMA ranges from one to a maximum of five times in the past 3 months. 69% of the respondents administered antibiotics twice in the past 3 months. The indications for SMA were fever (34%), followed by cold and flu (23%) and UTI (14%). Most of the participants who practiced SMA obtained antibiotics from the pharmacy (75%) followed by leftovers from previous treatment (17%). Conclusion: The study revealed that more than one-third of the respondents practiced SMA. The findings from the present study indicate the necessity of activating antimicrobial stewardship programs throughout the country, as well as implementing effective legislation to prohibit dispensing antibiotics without prescription.

Understanding Chao (Biometrika, 1982) [Paper on ΠPS Sampling Schemes

Chao's (1982) sampling scheme offers a systematic approach to select samples based on probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling without replacement but it might be difficult to grasp, particularly for entry-level researchers. In response, this study revisits Chao's method with the aim of providing a simplified and more intuitive understanding. Drawing inspiration from efforts by Dr. Tommy Wright and subsequent group discussions with BKS, we present a step-by-step breakdown of Chao's scheme with illustrative examples, emphasizing its elegance and practicality. This study showcases the value of making complex statistical methods accessible for broader engagement in research and practice. International Journal of Statistical Sciences, Vol.24(1), March, 2024, pp 133-154

Burden of Goitre and Urinary Iodine Status among Primary School Children in Kashmir, India-Evidence from a Population-Based Iodine Deficiency Disorder Survey.

Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of preventable brain damage, with 30% of the world's population suffering from iodine deficiency disorders (IDDs). The objectives of the study are to estimate the prevalence of goitre among schoolchildren in the age group of 6-12 years, to find out the proportion of households with adequately iodised salt, and to assess the dietary iodine intake by measuring urinary iodine levels in the urine samples of school-going children. A cross-sectional study was conducted in four pre-selected districts of the Kashmir division of Jammu and Kashmir in school-going children aged 6 to 12 years. Multi-stage 30 cluster sampling was used to select the study sample. For the selection of 30 clusters in each district, probability proportional to size (PPS) was employed. From each cluster, 90 children were selected. From a sub-sample of children in each district, 540 salt samples and 270 urine samples were also collected. A total of 10,800 children aged 6-12 years were examined. Grade I goitre was present in 1382 (12.8%) and 116 (1.07%) which were having Grade II goitre. The weighted prevalence of goitre for four districts was 12.6%, lowest for district Ganderbal and highest for district Shopian. Half of the population in all the districts consumed salt with iodine levels of <15 ppm. Urinary iodine levels <99.9 mg/L were present in 15.7% indicating mild to moderate iodine deficiency. Though the present survey showed some decline in the total goitre rate (TGR) from a prevalence of 14.8% in 2017 to 12.6% in 2022, it continues to be a public health problem of mild to moderate intensity in Kashmir. The salt consumed at the household level was inadequately iodised. Hence, efforts in IDD elimination activities need to be scaled up further with emphasis on iodised salt quality control and intensive education at the community level.

Calibration Estimation of Population Proportion in Probability Proportional to Size Sampling in the Presence of Non-Response

Objectives: In this article, we addressed the problem of estimation of the finite population proportion under the Probability Proportional to Size (PPS) sampling technique, when the complete information is unavailable due to the presence of non-response. We developed calibrated estimators of the population proportion under PPS sampling in the presence of nonresponse based on the availability of auxiliary information. Methods: The expressions for the mean squared errors of the suggested estimators were developed to the first order of approximation. The developed estimators of the population proportion are compared with the design-based Horvitz-Thompson estimator and Horvitz-Thompson type calibration estimator which were obtained on the complete response units along with the design-based Hansen and Hurwitz type estimator in the presence of non-response. A Simulation study has also been conducted to support the performance of the developed estimators of population proportion with the help of two real datasets, by computing Percentage Absolute Relative Bias (%ARB) and Percentage Relative Root Mean Squared Error (%RRMSE) using R software. Findings: The simulation study supported the performance of the developed estimators of the finite population proportion based on %ARB and %RRMSE. The proposed calibration estimators of population proportion are more efficient than the other considered estimators in the presence of non-response. Novelty: The proposed new calibrated estimators have practical implications in the estimation of finite population proportions. Keywords: Auxiliary information, Calibration Approach, Non­response, Population proportion, PPS sampling

A Probability Proportional to Size Estimation of a Rare Sensitive Attribute Using a Partial Randomized Response Model with Poisson Distribution

In this paper, we suggest using a partial randomized response model using Poisson distribution to efficiently estimate a rare sensitive attribute by applying the probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling method when the population is composed of several different and sensitive clusters. We have obtained estimators for a rare and sensitive attribute and their variances and variance estimates by applying PPS sampling and two-stage equal probability sampling. We compare the efficiency between the estimators of the rare sensitive attribute, one obtained via PPS sampling with replacement and the other obtained using the two-stage equal probability sampling with replacement. As a result, it is confirmed that the estimate obtained via the PPS sampling with replacement is more efficient than the estimate provided by the two-stage equal probability sampling with replacement when the cluster sizes are different.

School Location and Private Cost of Secondary Education in Oyo and Osun States, Nigeria

The study established the relationship between location of schools and private costs (cost of transportation, feeding, books and uniform) of secondary education in Oyo and Osun States, Nigeria. It also investigated the difference in the private cost of secondary education in urban and rural secondary schools and the parameters employed to site secondary schools in the two states under study. The study adopted a descriptive survey research design. The population of the study consisted of all the senior secondary school III (SSS3) students in all the 63 local government areas in both Oyo and Osun states (Oyo and Osun states are made up of 33 and 30 local government areas respectively). The sample of the study comprised 2,000 SSSIII students (1,040 from Oyo state and 960 from Osun state) from 100 secondary schools (52 from Oyo state and 48 from Osun state) in 32 Local Government Areas (LGAs) of the two states under study (17 LGAs from Oyo state and 15 LGAs from Osun state). The selection of the students, schools and local government areas was based on Probability Proportional to Size (PPS) sampling method. The instrument used for data collection is a questionnaire titled “Students’ Questionnaire on Secondary School Location and Private Cost” (SQSSLPC). Seven null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The results of the study showed that location of secondary schools and private cost of secondary education were not significantly related (χ2 =0.8896, table value = 3.84, df = 1, P &gt; 0.05) and there was no significant difference in the private cost of secondary education between urban and rural secondary schools (t-cal, -1.23 &lt; t-crit, 1.96, df = 1,992). The study concludes that educational planners have essential roles to play in the process of locating secondary schools in the states.

Dietary Diversity Score and Nutritional Status of Adolescent Girls with Anemia in Bandung Region

This study aimed to determine the association between Dietary Diversity Scores (DDS) and nutritional status among adolescent girls with anemia. Seventy-one adolescent girls aged 15−17 years from high schools in Bandung were selected using Probability Proportional to Size (PPS). The data on the sociodemographic characteristics, health and nutritional status, and DDS of the subjects were collected. Results showed that the mean DDS was classified as high. There was no significant association between DDS and BMI-for-age Z-score (BAZ) and Waist-Hip Ratio (WHR) in adolescent girls with anemia (p&gt;0.05). Therefore, DDS was not associated with nutritional status in adolescent girls with anemia.

A stratified modified probability proportional to size sampling technique

In Probability Proportional to Size (PPS) sampling, size variable associated with the sampling unit leads to the probability selection of units proportional to its size. In the literature, modification to PPS has been proposed by dividing the population in two groups on arranging the units in decreasing order of their frequency. We introduce Stratified Modified Probability Proportional to Size with Replacement (Stratified MPPSWR) sampling and Stratified Modified Rao-Hartley-Cochran (Stratified MRHC) design in case of without replacement sampling where the data are distributed in homogeneous strata such that it follows Zipf’s law within each stratum and the units are selected using MPPSWR and MRHC design respectively. In proposed schemes, each stratum is divided into two groups and first group is selected into the sample with probability 1 and units from second group are selected using PPSWR and RHC sampling respectively as in MPPSWR and MRHC sampling design. The relative efficiency of the proposed schemes is carried out and an illustration is given using the real data set. The proposed sampling schemes are seen to be more efficient than existing techniques.

Economic Evaluation of Cost and Returns of Potato Crop towards Livelihood Security of Farmers in the Nalanda District of Bihar

"India is the world’s second – larger producer of veggies, after China. The primary vegetable grown in Nalanda is the potato. The goal of the current analysis was to analysis potato farming costs and returns using various cost models. The study was carried out in Bihar sarif and Noor Sharai block, which were chosen due to their high potato production and area. Number of farmers in each category based on probability proportional to size (PPS). Cost of cultivation of potato on the sample farms in Nalanda district of Bihar. Production is generally considered to be a function of area and yield. The selection of crop enterprise to be chosen in the farm and the location and distribution of resources within it depend to a great extent on the yield of the crop, its price and the cost of the inputs used for its production. These measurements for potatoes were developed as a result of taking into account the cost of cultivation and returns on various production aspects when choosing a crop. Per hectare, on an average ` 92552.03 was spent on potato. In the medium farm category, ` 100166 was spent on farming the highest. Followed by small farms ` 92867 and marginal farms ` 84623.09. The cost of various components of cultivation such as tubers (seeds) is the highest (22.95%) in the variable cost, followed by (19.46 per cent) Human labour. The remaining significant factor included the fertilizer (8.82 per cent), irrigation charge 7.77 per cent, machine charge 6.49 per cent, plant protection 3.79 per cent, manure 3.06 per cent, depreciation rate 1.62 per cent and land revenue 0.24 per cent and the percentage of rental value of own land includes cost of fixed cost (21.61 per cent), interest on fixed capital 2.95 per cent and interest on working capital 1.23 per cent."

Quality of Life Among Elderly People in Chitwan District, Nepal

As the world's elderly population grows, the Quality of Life (QoL) of the elderly becomes an emerging issue and plays a vital role in social development. The aim of this study was to assess the QoL of elderly people in the Chitwan district, Nepal. An analytical cross-sectional study design was employed to evaluate the Quality of Life (QoL) among the elderly residing in the 17 wards encompassing all municipalities and the metropolitan area. The sampling method employed was Probability Proportionate to Size (PPS), which facilitated the selection of 26 respondents from each of the chosen wards. In total, 442 elderly individuals were recruited from the community and surveyed using the WHOQoL-brief questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze data in SPSS 20. Most of the elderly mentioned neutral status in both overall QoL (71%) and satisfied with their health status (48.4%). Elderly aged 60-69 years had higher QoL scores in the physical (p&lt;0.007) and psychological (p&lt;0.014) domains compared to other age groups. There was statistically significant association of physical domain with age group, marital status, religion, and presence of chronic illness. The psychological domain was associated with age group, education, religion, and presence of chronic illness. The social domain was associated with marital status, type of family, education, ethnicity, and presence of chronic illness. The environmental health domain was associated with sources of family income, marital status, education, different living arrangements, religion, ethnicity, and presence of chronic illness. All QoL domains showed a positive correlation (p&lt;0.01) with each other as well as with the overall health and quality of life of elderly people. The overall health status and QoL of elderly people was neutral. As increasing the age of the elderly, almost domains of quality of life were declining. Living arrangement with family was associated with the environmental health domain. The absence of chronic illness was associated with all domains of the quality of life of the elderly.