Proactive Aggression Research Articles

The relationship between alexithymia, hostile attribution bias, and aggression

Prior studies found a positive association between alexithymia and aggression. This study extended existing findings by adopting a subdimensional approach to investigate the unique association of alexithymia factors with reactive and proactive aggression, such as difficulty identifying feelings (DIF), difficulty describing feelings (DDF), and externally oriented thinking (EOT). This study also explored factors associated with the link between alexithymia and aggression by investigating the potential moderating role of hostile attribution bias (HAB). Four hundred and eighty-five college students (275 females) were recruited. Results showed that alexithymia was positively associated with aggression; however, different alexithymia factors did not show equally strong associations with aggression subtypes. Specifically, DIF (in contrast to DDF and EOT) was the strongest correlate of reactive aggression, while EOT (in contrast to DIF and DDF) was the strongest correlate of proactive aggression. Meanwhile, HAB was a moderator for the relationship between alexithymia and aggression, but not between alexithymia factors and aggression subtypes. Implications and limitations of the present study are discussed.

Psychopathy and Aggression: The Role of Emotion Dysregulation.

The importance of psychopathy in the forensic and criminal justice domains is largely due to its robust associations with aggression and violent behavior. Hence, investigators have increasingly been interested in elucidating potential mechanisms linking psychopathy and aggression. Recent research highlighted previously overlooked associations between psychopathy and difficulties in emotion regulation, the process responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and managing one's emotional experience, as well as for guiding behavior under intense emotional arousal. Yet, it remains unclear whether emotion dysregulation may be helpful to explain well-documented associations between psychopathy and aggression. The present study examined whether emotion dysregulation mediated associations (i.e., explained a significant portion of the shared variance) between psychopathy and aggression across community (N = 521) and offender (N = 268) samples. Participants completed self-report measures of psychopathy, emotion dysregulation, trait aggressiveness (i.e., anger, hostility, physical and verbal aggression), as well as reactive and proactive aggression. Across both samples, psychopathy had significant indirect effect on all indices of aggression through emotion dysregulation, with the exception of verbal aggression. These findings support the relevance of emotion regulation for the construct of psychopathy and its maladaptive correlates and highlight the potential relevance of focusing on emotion regulation as a possible target for interventions aimed at reducing aggression among individuals with psychopathic traits.

Differential effects of the menstrual cycle on reactive and proactive aggression in borderline personality disorder.

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is characterized by rapidly shifting symptoms, including intense anger and aggressive behavior. Understanding how fluctuations in ovarian hormones across the menstrual cycle may contribute to symptom instability is key for accurate assessment of BPD symptoms and effective interventions. Reactive and proactive aggression, as well as anger-in and anger-out, were assessed daily in 15 physically healthy, unmedicated naturally cycling female individuals meeting criteria for BPD across 35 days. Urine luteinizing hormone surge and salivary progesterone were used to confirm ovulation and verify the cycle phase. Multilevel models evaluated cyclical differences of symptoms between cycle phases. Both forms of aggressive behavior demonstrated marked cycle effects, with reactive aggression highest during the midluteal cycle phase, co-occurring with initial increases in anger and irritability and followed by perimenstrual peaks in anger and anger-in. In contrast, highest levels of proactive aggression were observed during the follicular and ovulatory phases, when emotional symptoms and anger were otherwise at lowest levels. These findings highlight the importance of identifying the function of aggression when considering potential psychological and biological influences. Naturally cycling individuals with BPD may be at elevated risk for luteal worsening of a range of interpersonally reactive symptoms, including reactive aggression, whereas proactive aggression may occur more in phases characterized by less emotional and cognitive vulnerability and greater reward sensitivity. Research on aggression in this population should consider cycle effects. Cycling individuals with BPD attempting to reduce aggressive behavior may benefit from cycle-tracking to increase awareness of these effects and to develop appropriate strategies.

The long-term effect of media violence exposure on aggression of youngsters

The effect of media violence on aggression has always been a trending issue, and a better understanding of the psychological mechanism of the impact of media violence on youth aggression is an extremely important research topic for preventing the negative impacts of media violence and juvenile delinquency. From the perspective of anger, this study explored the long-term effect of different degrees of media violence exposure on the aggression of youngsters, as well as the role of aggressive emotions. The studies found that individuals with a high degree of media violence exposure (H-MVE) exhibited higher levels of proactive aggression in both irritation situations and higher levels of reactive aggression in low-irritation situations than did participants with a low degree of media violence exposure (L-MVE). After being provoked, the anger of all participants was significantly increased, and the anger and proactive aggression levels of the H-MVE group were significantly higher than those of the L-MVE group. Additionally, rumination and anger played a mediating role in the relationship between media violence exposure and aggression. Overall, this study enriches the theoretical understanding of the long-term effect of media violence exposure on individual aggression. Second, this study deepens our understanding of the relatively new and relevant phenomenon of the mechanism between media violence exposure and individual aggression.

Omega-3 supplementation in young offenders: a randomized, stratified, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial

To examine whether omega-3 supplementation reduces antisocial and aggressive behavior in offenders. In this randomized, double-blind trial, 145 young offenders were randomized into three groups: omega-3 (N = 48), placebo (N = 46), and treatment-as-usual controls (N = 51). Measures of antisocial, aggressive, and psychopathic behavior were collected at 0 months (baseline), 3 months (end of treatment), 6 months (3 months post-treatment), and 12 months (9 months post-treatment). Omega-3 supplementation resulted in both short-term and long-term declines in self-reported antisocial and aggressive behavior. Findings were stronger for a reactive-impulsive form of aggression than for proactive aggression and psychopathy. Sensitivity analyses documented long-term reductions at 6 and 12 months in the omega-3 group for officer reports. Results suggest that omega-3 supplementation can help reduce antisocial and aggressive behavior over and above regular treatment programs in young offender institutions, particularly for reactive, impulsive aggression.

Specific cortical and subcortical alterations for reactive and proactive aggression in children and adolescents with disruptive behavior

Maladaptive aggression, as present in conduct disorder (CD) and, to a lesser extent, oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), has been associated with structural alterations in various brain regions, such as ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), amygdala, insula and ventral striatum. Although aggression can be subdivided into reactive and proactive subtypes, no neuroimaging studies have yet investigated if any structural brain alterations are associated with either of the subtypes specifically. Here we investigated associations between aggression subtypes, CU traits and ADHD symptoms in predefined regions of interest.T1-weighted magnetic resonance images were acquired from 158 children and adolescents with disruptive behavior (ODD/CD) and 96 controls in a multi-center study (aged 8–18). Aggression subtypes were assessed by questionnaires filled in by participants and their parents. Cortical volume and subcortical volumes and shape were determined using Freesurfer and the FMRIB integrated registration and segmentation tool. Associations between volumes and continuous measures of aggression were established using multilevel linear mixed effects models.Proactive aggression was negatively associated with amygdala volume (b = -10.7, p = 0.02), while reactive aggression was negatively associated with insula volume (b = -21.7, p = 0.01). No associations were found with CU traits or ADHD symptomatology. Classical group comparison showed that children and adolescents with disruptive behavior had smaller volumes than controls in (bilateral) vmPFC (p = 0.003) with modest effect size and a reduced shape in the anterior part of the left ventral striatum (p = 0.005).Our study showed negative associations between reactive aggression and volumes in a region involved in threat responsivity and between proactive aggression and a region linked to empathy. This provides evidence for aggression subtype-specific alterations in brain structure which may provide useful insights for clinical practice.

伤害厌恶与主动性攻击关系的研究进展

伤害厌恶与主动性攻击关系的研究进展

Effectiveness of the ViSC Social Competence Program in Turkish Elementary Schools

This study examined whether participating in the ViSC social competence program is able to reduce different types of reported problem behaviors including bullying perpetration and victimization as well as promoting various social competencies in elementary school children. Two wave longitudinal self-report and teacher report data was available from 822 students (546 intervention group, 276 control group, 50% girls, Mage = 9.30) from five intervention (23 classes) and four control (14 classes) schools. Multilevel growth models revealed a more favorable development of the ViSC intervention group compared with the control group in three student-reported and all teacher reported variables. Participating in the program reduced conduct problems, reactive and proactive aggression and promoted school bonding, relationships with classmates, emotional regulation, and prosocial skills. However, the program was not effective regarding the reduction of bullying and victimization. Findings are discussed with regard to the implementation of future bullying prevention programs and social policies in Turkish schools.

Factorial Analysis and Invariance Testing for Age and Gender of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ).

Reactive aggression is characterized by high emotional activation, impulsivity, and hostility, while proactive aggression presents a cold, instrumental, and planned strategy. The aim was to perform a psychometric analysis of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire [RPQ]. A non-probability sample of 502 people between 18 and 40 years old was formed, grouped by sex (n=297, 59.2% women and n=205, 40.8% men) and age (n = 224, 44.62% under 25 years old and n=278, 55.38% over 25 years old). The instruments were the RPQ, the Anger Rumination Scale (ARS), and an affective scale (PANAS) in printed format. In this instrumental psychometric study, we found that the RPQ fits better in a model of two factors interrelated with residual covariances (CFI = .928, RMSEA = .044), presenting significant correlations with negative affect and anger rumination, as evidence of validity of concurrent criterion, especially with reactive aggression (anger rumination r = .542, and negative affect r = .359). Also, the test was not invariant between sexes and ages, given that the best fit was in the male sex and those under 25 years of age (∆CFI < 0.01, ∆RMSEA < 0.015). We concluded that women and adults over the age of 25 have a different aggressive response profile. These findings represent new directions of research around the measurement of aggressive behavior and the development of gender differentiated interventions for adolescents and young adults.

Self-reported psychopathy and aggression motivation: a role for emotions?

ABSTRACTThe current study examined the psychopathy-aggression relationship by considering different forms of aggression, including aggressive motivation. Emotions were explored as useful in understanding any emerging relationship, notably those consistent with detachment and sensitivity/poor regulation. In three studies, involving non-offending samples (Study one: n = 150, 47 men, 103 women; Study two: n = 442, 314 men, 123 women, five not disclosed; Study three: n = 200, 100 men and 100 women), it was predicted that higher levels of psychopathy would be associated with reports of higher overall, proactive and reactive aggression, and that the association would be moderated by emotion. Specifically, it was predicted that emotion regulation difficulties would associate with higher levels of reactive but not proactive aggression, and that proactive aggression would involve a lack of emotion. Findings generally supported the predictions. The role of emotion-regulation difficulties as a mediator between psychopathy and reactive aggression, and greater emotional detachment as a mediator between psychopathy and proactive aggression was demonstrated. The results demonstrate importance for the components of psychopathy and different aspects of emotion for the psychopathy-aggression link. Directions for future research and some implications for practice are outlined.

From Physical Aggression to Verbal Behavior: Language Evolution and Self-Domestication Feedback Loop.

We propose that human self-domestication favored the emergence of a less aggressive phenotype in our species, more precisely phenotype prone to replace (reactive) physical aggression with verbal aggression. In turn, the (gradual) transition to verbal aggression and to more sophisticated forms of verbal behavior favored self-domestication, with the two processes engaged in a mutually reinforcing feedback loop, considering that verbal behavior entails not only less violence and better survival but also more opportunities to interact longer and socialize with more conspecifics, ultimately enabling the emergence of more complex forms of language. Whereas in the case of self-domestication, sexual selection has been proposed to work against physical aggression traits, in the case of verbal insult, the selection has been proposed to work in favor of verbal aggression. The tension between these two seemingly opposing forces gets resolved/alleviated by a tendency to replace physical aggression with verbal aggression and with verbal behavior more generally. This also helps solve the paradox of the Self-Domestication Hypothesis regarding aggression, more precisely why aggression in humans has been reduced only when it comes to reactive aggression, but not when it comes to proactive aggression, the latter exhibiting an increase in the advent of modern language. We postulate that this feedback loop was particularly important during the time period arguably between 200 and 50 kya, when humans were not fully modern, neither in terms of their skull/brain morphology and their behavior/culture nor in terms of their self-domestication. The novelty of our approach lies in (1) giving an active role to early forms of language in interacting with self-domestication processes; (2) providing specific linguistic details and functions of this early stage of grammar (including insult and humor); (3) supplying neurobiological, ontogenetic, and clinical evidence of a link between (reactive) aggression and (reactive) verbal behavior; (4) identifying proxies of the earlier stages in evolution among cognitive disorders; and (5) identifying specific points of contact and mutual reinforcement between these two processes (self-domestication and early language evolution), including reduction in physical aggression and stress/tension, as well as sexual selection.

French version of reactive-proactive aggression questionnaire: psychometric properties in adolescents

This study examined the psychometric properties of the French version of the reactive-proactive aggression questionnaire (RPQ). A total of 124 adolescents from the general population and 134 institutionalised adolescents completed the French version of the RPQ, along with other measures of externalising behaviours (aggression and delinquency), psychopathic traits and impulsivity. A confirmatory factor analysis supports the two-factor structure, namely proactive and reactive. Good internal consistency in both samples was observed. The construct validity was adequate with correlations between (1) both forms of aggression and externalising behaviours, (2) reactive aggression and impulsivity, and (3) proactive aggression and psychopathic traits. Moreover, the institutionalised group reported higher proactive and reactive aggression compared with the community one whereas boys reported higher proactive aggression than girls. The French version of the RPQ had adequate psychometric properties indicating its validity and utility.

The Moderating Effects of Child-Perceived Parental Psychological Control on the Association between Functions of Aggression and Peer Victimization in Elementary School Children

The current study examined whether associations between functions of aggression (proactive and reactive) and peer victimization (physical and relational) were moderated by parental psychological control in a sample of elementary school-aged children. Analyses were based on a sample of 279 children in grades three through five. Data was collected in the fall and spring of a single academic year. Peer victimization was assessed through child- and teacher-report, and functions of aggression and parental psychological control were measured through child-report. Multiple group models, with student sex as the grouping variable, were estimated to address study hypotheses. Findings from multiple group path models revealed significant effects for boys only. For boys who reported a high level of parental psychological control, proactive aggression was a negative predictor of child-reported physical victimization. Additionally, parental psychological control moderated the association between boys’ reactive aggression and teacher-reported relational victimization. At low levels of parental psychological control, reactive aggression was a positive predictor of relational victimization whereas reactive aggression was a negative predictor of peer victimization at high levels of psychological control. Our results suggest that for boys who endorse a high level of parental psychological control, aggression is negatively associated with peer victimization. We argue that children who experience a high level of parental psychological control are more likely to apply those same strategies in their peer relationships, which makes them less likely to be targets of relational and physical victimization. This study helps inform our understanding of the role of parental psychological control in the relation between aggression and peer relationship difficulties.

Relationship between Body Habitus and Aggression Subtypes among Healthy Young Adults from the American Midwest

ABSTRACT This study examined associations between body habitus and functions of aggression, in a sample of 474 college students from the Midwestern region of the United States (age range = 18-25y; 73% Caucasian). Two instruments of aggression, the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire from Dodge & Coie (DC) and Raine et al. (RPQ) were given as self-assessments. Body habitus measures standardized by age and gender specific weight and height were collected. Subjects considered to have a large body habitus in our study had both weight and height measures above the 75th percentile. Large body habitus was positively correlated with both proactive and reactive functions of aggression among adult males but not females; however, regression analyses indicated that body habitus was most strongly and robustly associated with proactive aggression. Findings suggest that even in a healthy homogeneous population, large body size in males is associated with aggression, particularly proactive aggression including bullying rather than retaliatory aggression. The presence of a large body physique may reinforce aggressive behavioral traits acquired through life experiences and activities evoking physical dominance. Alternatively, the relationship may reflect neurological processes related to size influenced by genetic factors and hormones leading to antisocial behaviors requiring future research on the role of genes for aggression.

Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD): Preliminary validation of the parent version in a Spanish sample of preschoolers.

The Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD) scale (Salekin & Hare, 2016) was developed as a measure of the broader construct of psychopathy in childhood and adolescence. In addition to conduct disorder (CD) symptoms, the PSCD addresses the interpersonal (grandiose-manipulative), affective (callous-unemotional), and lifestyle (daring-impulsive) traits of psychopathic personality. The PSCD can be scored by parents and teachers. The present study is a preliminary test of the psychometric properties of the PSCD-Parent Version in a sample of 2,229 children aged 3 to 6 years. Confirmatory factor analyses supported both a 3- and 4-factor structure being invariant across gender groups. The validity of the PSCD was also supported by convergent-divergent associations with an alternative measure of psychopathic traits as well as by the expected relations with fearlessness, conduct problems, reactive and proactive aggression, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms, and social competence skills. Overall, the PSCD is a promising alternative measure for assessing early manifestation of the broader construct of psychopathy in children. Its use should facilitate discussion of the conceptualization, assessment, predictive value, and clinical usefulness of the psychopathic construct as it relates to CD at early developmental stages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The cognitive, affective, and somatic empathy scales (CASES): Cross-cultural replication and specificity to different forms of aggression and victimization

A psychometrically sound measure of empathy that captures its multifaceted nature is critical in furthering research on empathy. The only instrument that assesses three domains of empathy together with positive and negative valence empathy is the newly developed 30-item cognitive, affective, and somatic empathy scales (CASES). The current study examines the cross-culture generalizability of CASES in Hong Kong and explores links between empathy and different forms of aggression and peer victimization. A sample of 4,676 Hong Kong youth (62% male) completed CASES, alongside measures of reactive/proactive aggression and multidimensional peer victimization. A subsample of youth (n = 2,321–2,464) and their parents completed additional instruments for testing the validity of CASES. We replicated most of the concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity findings in the original development of CASES. Proactive aggression was most strongly linked to affective empathy, whereas reactive aggression was most strongly linked to somatic empathy. Differential associations were revealed between subscales of CASES and forms of peer victimization. Findings provide cross-cultural generalizability for a brief self-report instrument that captures the multifaceted nature of empathy. The multifaceted nature of empathy is further supported by differential associations with forms of aggression and victimization.

Ovarian Hormones as a Source of Fluctuating Biological Vulnerability in Borderline Personality Disorder.

To examine the potential role of ovarian hormones in biological vulnerability to borderline personality disorder (BPD). The review focuses primarily on research examining the menstrual cycle as a source of short-term lability of BPD symptom expression, while discussing the currently understudied possibility of ovarian hormone influence in the developmental course of BPD. Several patterns of menstrual cycle effects on BPD symptoms and relevant features in non-clinical samples have been observed in empirical studies. Most symptoms demonstrated patterns consistent with perimenstrual exacerbation; however, timing varied between high and low arousal symptoms, potentially reflecting differing mechanisms. Symptoms are typically lowest around ovulation, with an exception for proactive aggression and some forms of impulsive behaviors. Preliminary evidence suggests ovarian hormones may exert strong effects on BPD symptom expression, and further research is warranted examining mechanisms and developing interventions. Recommendations for researchers and clinicians working with BPD are provided.

The functions of aggression in gaining, maintaining, and losing popularity during adolescence: A multiple-cohort design.

This study examined associations between perceived popularity trajectories and changes in proactive and reactive aggression in middle adolescence. The sample included 1,374 adolescents from 5 cohorts who were followed from Grade 7 to Grade 9 (49% males, Mage = 12.67 years, SD = .67). Popularity trajectories were identified based on initial status and changes in status over time, and linear mixed effects models tested group differences in changes of aggression. The results partially confirmed our expectation that changes in popularity were associated with specific developmental patterns of proactive and reactive aggression and also varied as a function of status already achieved. Specifically, adolescents in groups characterized by gains in status increased in proactive aggression, and those in groups characterized by losses in status decreased in proactive aggression. A more nuanced pattern of group differences emerged for reactive aggression. Changes in reactive aggression were only found for groups characterized by changes in unpopular status. Taken together, these findings suggest that proactive aggression has universal benefits for popularity in middle adolescence, whereas reactive aggression has differential costs. Implications and directions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Taming anger and trusting others: Roles of skin conductance, anger regulation, and trust in children's aggression.

Proactive and reactive aggression subtypes are distinguishable as early as the preschool years. However, their early physiological and social-emotional correlates have not been examined simultaneously. We tested whether children's skin conductance level, anger regulation, and trust in others were differentially related to their proactive and reactive aggression. Four-year-olds and their primary caregivers were recruited from a large Canadian city (N=150). Controlling for reactive aggression, higher trust was associated with lower proactive aggression, but only for children with low anger regulation or skin conductance level. Controlling for proactive aggression, lower anger regulation was related to higher reactive aggression, and higher trust was related to higher reactive aggression for children with high skin conductance level. Findings highlight the unique and collective relations of physiology, emotion regulation, and trust to different forms of aggression in early childhood. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject Proactive and reactive aggression subtypes are distinguishable as early as the preschool years. Unique physiological and social-emotional correlates of each subtype have been studied in middle and late childhood. Trust is a critical milestone for positive social interactions in early childhood and has been linked to aggression. What the present study adds Physiological and social-emotional correlates are uniquely linked to subtypes of aggression already at age 4. Trust is differentially linked to aggression subtypes as a function of anger regulation and skin conductance level.

Distinct associations between fronto-striatal glutamate concentrations and callous-unemotional traits and proactive aggression in disruptive behavior

Disruptive behavior is associated with societally and personally problematic levels of aggression and has been linked to abnormal structure and function of fronto-amygdala-striatal regions. Abnormal glutamatergic signalling within this network may play a role in aggression. However, disruptive behavior does not represent a homogeneous construct, but can be fractionated across several dimensions. Of particular interest, callous-unemotional (CU) traits have been shown to modulate the severity, neural and behavioural characterisation, and therapeutic outcomes of disruptive behaviour disorders (DBDs) and aggression. Further, individuals showing disruptive behavior differ to the extent that they engage in subtypes of aggression (i.e., proactive [PA] and reactive aggression [RA]) which may also represent distinct therapeutic targets. Here we investigated how glutamate signalling within the fronto-amygdala-striatal circuitry was altered along these dimensions in youths showing disruptive behavior (n = 140) and typically developing controls (TD, n = 93) within the age-range of 8–18 years. We used proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), striatum, amygdala and insula and associated glutamate concentrations with continuous measures of aggression and CU-traits using linear mixed-effects models. We found evidence of a dissociation for the different measures and glutamate concentrations. CU traits were associated with increased ACC glutamate (‘callousness’: b = .19, t (108) = 2.63, p = .01, r = .25; ‘uncaring’: b = .18, t (108) = 2.59, p = .011, r = .24) while PA was associated with decreased striatal glutamate concentration (b = −.23, t (28) = -3.02, p = .005, r = .50). These findings suggest dissociable correlates of CU traits and PA in DBDs, and indicate that the ACC and striatal glutamate may represent novel pharmacological targets in treating these different aspects.