Prosocial Research Articles

Animal-Assisted Interventions: Factors Affecting Donkey Behaviours and Attitude Toward Humans.

The relationship between humans and donkeys has ancient origins. In recent years, donkeys' involvement in Animal-Assisted Intervention (AAI) has grown, raising major concerns about their welfare during these activities. We investigated the factors affecting donkeys' behaviour during an AAI programme for migrants. We observed an effect of human distance from the animal, the interaction mode, and food presence on the animals' behaviours and attitudes toward humans. Moreover, we provide preliminary evidence of the effect of AAI on migrants' welfare and prosocial behaviours and offer insights into the issues to address in future studies.

LEGO®-Based Therapy in School Settings for Social Behavior Stimulation in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Comparing Peer-Mediated and Expert Intervention

Background: LEGO®-based therapy is a social development protocol that uses LEGO® activities to support the development of a wide range of interaction skills, enhancing prosocial behaviors and mitigating the challenges associated with mental health difficulties and behavioral issues commonly observed in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Objectives: This study aimed to explore the effects of LEGO®-based therapy on the social behavior and mental health of children with ASD, comparing stimulation mediated by expert and stimulation mediated by non-autistic peers. This study was approved by the Ethical Committee at Mackenzie Presbyterian University, ensuring adherence to ethical standards throughout the research process. Methods: This study involved 18 children with ASD, levels 1 or 2, with an intelligence quotient (IQ) above 70, and three typically developing peers, intelligence quotient (IQ) above 80, aged between 5 and 8 years old, of both sexes. Participants were randomized into three groups for stimulation (stimulation mediated by expert, by a non-autistic peer and control group). The measures were the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (parent and teacher versions), the Inventory of Difficulties in Executive Functions, Regulation, and Aversion to Delay—Child Version, the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire, the Autism Behavior Checklist, and the Autistic Behavior Inventory. Results: After 14 sessions of 45 min in school settings, the participants of both groups (mediated by experts and non-autistic children) showed significant gains on social behavior. A statistically significant difference was observed between baseline sessions and probes (χ2 (5) = 25.905, p < 0.001). These gains were maintained in both follow-up points, 30 and 90 days after the completion of the stimulation sessions. Additionally, maladaptive behavior showed a significant decline when compared pre- and post-intervention. These improvements were sustained during follow-up assessments at 30 and 90 days. Conclusions: The results suggest that a structured intervention combined with peer-mediated stimulation may be an effective method for promoting adaptive and prosocial behaviors in children with ASD.

Stress-induced cortisol response predicts empathy for pain: The role of task-based connectivity between the insula and sensorimotor cortex during acute stress

Empathy for pain is a key driver of prosocial behavior and is influenced by acute psychosocial stress. However, the role of task-based brain connectivity during acute stress have been neglected. Hence, we aimed to explore the relationship between the magnitude of cortisol response to acute stress and empathy for pain, as well as the neural connectivity mechanisms involved. In this study, 80 healthy participants (37 women and 43 men) were exposed to the acute psychosocial stress paradigm (ScanSTRESS) and were scanned by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Saliva samples were collected to measure the magnitude of cortisol stress response. Subsequently, the participants took part in a pain-video task to assess their empathy for pain. Six participants were excluded because of physical discomfort or excessive head movement in all runs during the task-dependent fMRI scan. Therefore, 33 women and 41 men were included in data analysis. We found that empathy for pain was negatively correlated with the magnitude of cortisol stress response (r = -0.268, p = 0.018) and that the task-based connectivity between the salience network and sensorimotor network, including its sub-network and sub-region, was negatively correlated with the magnitude of cortisol stress response, and positively correlated with empathy for pain. Furthermore, task-based connectivity between the insula and the paracentral lobule mediates the effect of the stress-induced cortisol response on empathy for pain (indirect effect = -0.0152, 95% CI = [- 0.036, -0.001], p = 0.036). Our research suggests that empathy is not only correlated with stress-induced glucocorticoids but also tied to the stress-induced reduced communication between basic and higher brain regions.

Communicating strategic CEO activism to promote employee prosocial behaviors: Understanding the mediating role of employee prosocial sensemaking

The purpose of this research is to explore how CEOs effectively communicate their activism so as to encourage employee prosocial behaviors around social issues. An online experimental study with a 2 (narrative vs. non-narrative) x 2 (promotion- vs. prevention-focused messages) between-subjects design was conducted with 913 full-time employees (N=913) in the United States. This study uncovered the underlying role of employee prosocial sensemaking, which mediates the effect of narrative messaging in CEO activism communication on employee prosocial behaviors (e.g., employee activism supporting the issue and advocacy for the CEO’s activism). This study theoretically extends the scholarship on strategic communication to CEO activism communication in relation to employee prosocial behaviors. The findings also provide practical insight into how corporate leaders can strategically communicate their activism to employees in order to foster positive engagement, thereby contributing to organizational effectiveness as well as the expansion of responsible business practices.

학교폭력예방 어울림 프로그램이 유아의 친사회적 행동에 미치는 영향

The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of the Aulim program on prosocial behavior in Seven-year-old children. The study was conducted with 56 Seven-year-old children enrolled in a private kindergarten in Y City, using a teacher-administered prosocial behavior assessment before and after the implementation of the program. For data analysis, one-way ANOVA and ANCOVA were performed using SPSS 25.0. The results showed that children who participated in the Aulim program exhibited significant improvements in prosocial behavior, particularly in the subdomains of sharing, helping, empathy, self-regulation, and leadership, compared to both the control and comparison groups. These findings highlight the necessity for active implementation of the Aulim program in early childhood education settings. Furthermore, the results suggest the need for developing early childhood education programs that utilize the characteristics of the Aulim program, enhancing teachers' professional competencies, establishing developmentally appropriate terminology, and fostering cooperation with parents.

Membangun karakter anak sejak dini melalui program Tetirah Bimasakti

Elementary school children have the potential to develop positively with the support of their social environment. The more positive experiences presented in a child's daily life, the more likely they are to grow into well-adjusted individuals. The aim of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of the Program Tetirah Bimasakti in reducing challenging behaviors in elementary school children. This study utilized a quasi-experimental, one-group pretest-posttest design. Participants included six children enrolled in the Program Tetirah Bimasakti, selected through purposive sampling. The research instrument employed was the Indonesian version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) for children. Data analysis was conducted using the paired sample t-test. The results indicated a decrease in the participants' difficulty scores; however, there was no significant change in their prosocial scores. This suggests that while the Program Tetirah Bimasakti was effective in reducing difficult behaviors, it was insufficient for fostering prosocial behavior. Consequently, this study implies that relevant institutions should develop structured modules for activity programs that can be tailored to specific and targeted competencies.

The Effects of Problem-Based, Project-Based, and Multicultural Learning on Prosocial Behavior in Elementary School Students

This study aims to determine the influence of Problem-Based Learning, Project Based Learning and Multicookural Based Learning on prosocial behaviour in elementary school students. This study is a type of quasi-experimental research with a model using the Nonequavalen Control Group Postest Design. The research population consisted of 284 public elementary schools (SD) in Surabaya. In comparison, the research sample consisted of grade V students in three schools, namely SDN Margerejo I, SDN Sumur Welut III Surabaya, and SDN Menanggal 601 Surabaya. The data collection technique uses a questionnaire with 30 questions. The research instrument used the Measure of Prosocial Tendencies by adapting Carlo. Data analysis with statistical analysis of ANOVA test. The results of this study concluded the effect of project-based learning on prosocial behaviour in elementary school students with an ANOVA test score sig. 0.05. These findings show that the project-based learning model can foster prosocial behavior in elementary school students.

Ethical leadership and pro-social behavior in the hospitality industry: Does social norms matter?

Ethical leadership (EL) plays a pivotal role in shaping organizational culture and influencing employees' behaviors, especially in service-oriented sectors like hospitality, where interpersonal interactions are fundamental. This study investigates the mediating role of social norms (SN) in the relationship between EL and pro-social behavior (PSB) within Saudi Arabian hospitality enterprises. This research posits that SN serve as a critical conduit through which EL affects PSB among employees. A quantitative approach using self-administered questionnaire, gathering data from Saudi Arabian hotel employees to measure perceptions of EL, SN, and PSB. Structural equation modeling using Smart-PLS was used to analyze the data and test the proposed mediation model. The findings indicate that EL significantly enhances PSB and SN. Furthermore, SN partially mediate the relationship between EL and PSB. These results underscore the importance of fostering a culture of EL to promote PSBs in the hospitality industry, thereby enhancing overall service quality and employee satisfaction. Several theoretical and practical implications have been discussed for hospitality managers and researchers.

The Role of Parental Involvement in the Development of Prosocial Behavior in Young Children: An Evolutionary Model Among Colombian Families

AbstractProsocial behavior is a relevant indicator of children’s socio-emotional development linked to decreased conduct and emotional problems. The present study aimed to identify cross-sectional direct effects of parental involvement on prosocial behavior in three-time assessments at ages 3, 5, and 7 years, to identify carryover effects of the study constructs, and to identify the evolution of these effects over time. A sample of 235 Colombian families participated at t0, 220 at t1, and 145 at t2 by completing self-reported questionnaires for prosocial behavior using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire for parental involvement. Using PLS-SEM path modeling, we found that the contribution of parental involvement to prosocial behavior was significant in the three assessments. Carryover analyses indicated that initial levels of parental involvement and initial levels of prosocial behavior predict later levels. Using multigroup analysis, we tested significant changes in the path coefficients of direct effects, finding nonsignificant results. For carryover effects, we found changes in parental involvement between t0/t1 and t1/t2. Finally, t-test analyses were used to identify changes in the construct’s means over time, finding significant changes between parental involvement at t1 and t2. No mean differences were found for prosocial behavior. Results from this study highlight the relevance of parental involvement during childhood for maintaining children’s levels of prosocial behavior and reducing the risk of socio-emotional problems. Preventive approaches for these problems should include parents’ training on parental involvement from age 3.5 years or earlier.

Social contagion of pain and fear results in opposite social behaviors in rodents: meta- analysis of experimental studies.

The study aimed to explore the key factors influencing emotional valence in rodents, focusing on the critical elements that distinguish the contagion processes of fear and pain. Through a systematic review and meta-analysis, we examined behavioral outcomes of rodents exposed to painful or fearful catastrophes to see whether they are prosocial or antisocial through three-chamber test and dyadic social interaction paradigm. Fear contagion, particularly when witnessed, leads to social avoidance behavior, unaffected by sex difference but more pronounced with age. In contrast, pain contagion promotes social approach and caring/helping behaviors. The present study demonstrates that the emotional valence induced by pain contagion is quite different from fear contagion and this difference may result in different motivations and social behaviors, namely, social contagion of pain is likely to be more associated with prosocial behaviors, however, social contagion of fear is likely to be more associated with antisocial behaviors. PROSPERO (CRD42024566326).

The effect of hedonic and eudaimonic happiness in driving altruistic food choices

AbstractThis study investigates whether individual happiness affects prosocial behavior in food choices. We considered two distinct dimensions of happiness: hedonic and eudaimonic. The hedonic component is focused on pleasure, joy, and immediate gratification, while the eudaimonic aspect is related to a sense of purpose in life, personal growth, and the fulfillment of individual aspirations. We conducted a discrete choice experiment to assess if happy people are more prone to altruistic choices when buying food. The results indicate that individual happiness exerts distinct effects according to its two dimensions, eudaimonia and hedonism. We found that happiness influences the demand for ethical foods, whereas it exerts a detrimental effect on preferences for food with environmental labels.

Negative Affect Following Dating Application Use Is Predicted by Social Anxiety Symptoms and Match Rate.

Social rejection is a common and unavoidable experience for users of dating apps. Research suggests that socially anxious individuals may be particularly likely to use dating apps to establish intimate relationships, given their preference for online (vs. face-to-face) communication. However, social anxiety (SA) symptoms are associated with heightened negative affect and decreased prosocial behavior following social rejection, suggesting that exposure to dating app rejection has deleterious consequences in this population. This study examined whether SA symptoms and social rejection (vs. acceptance) feedback interact to predict participants' negative and positive affect and social engagement with dating app matches. Participants (N = 128) evaluated for SA symptoms were randomly assigned to receive high or low match rate feedback on a simulated dating application task. SA symptoms were negatively associated with positive affect following high match rate feedback and positively associated with negative affect following low match rate feedback. SA symptoms were negatively associated with self-reported likelihood of contact initiation with matches. Results suggest that high socially anxious individuals are more susceptible to negative repercussions of social rejection on dating applications.

Guiding Teenagers to Use Video Games Properly

With the increasing popularity of video games, some problems have arisen. For some people, video games can be said to be “destructive”, causing irreparable harm; For others, however, teenagers’ use of video games has produced some positive results. The purpose of this paper is to study the effects of video games on young people and how the community should guide young people to use video games to achieve positive effects and avoid negative effects. Through the analysis of literature and cases, this paper analyzes the positive and negative effects of electronic games on teenagers from the perspectives of society, psychology, and science, and studies the feasible ways for parents, schools, governments, and other groups to correctly guide teenagers to use electronic games. It is found that electronic games can have different effects on teenagers, both positive and negative, depending on the situation. Overall, the study reported more negative effects than positive ones. Among them, the negative aspects include addiction, affecting academic performance, causing psychological disorders, leading to suicide, affecting family relations, leading to social problems, leading to negative emotions, etc. The positive effects include cultivating prosocial behavior and satisfying psychological needs that are difficult to achieve in real life. To properly guide teenagers to use electronic games, all sectors of society, including parents, schools, and governments, can take some actions to achieve the goal.

A Meta-Analytic Review of Personality and Teacher-Student Relationships.

This meta-analysis provides the first comprehensive synthesis of associations between student and teacher personality traits and the quality of teacher-student relationships. Fifty-five studies met the eligibility criteria, contributing a total of 238 effect sizes. We used multivariate meta-analysis with robust variance estimation (RVE) to model the dependency of effect sizes. Student prosocial behavior (ρ = 0.59) and proactive personality (ρ = 0.48) were the strongest predictors of positive teacher-student relationship quality. All Big Five traits of students, except neuroticism, showed significant positive associations, with all correlations exceeding 0.4 when holding constant with all other moderators. Teacher agreeableness (ρ = 0.31) and conscientiousness (ρ = 0.29) yielded modest associations. Students with less emotional stability or aggressive behaviors were more likely to experience negative teacher-student relationships, such as conflict and dependency. Our findings highlight the critical role of student personality in explaining the quality of teacher-student interactions. Multiple traits appear equally important, as indicated by comparable effect sizes. The literature is relatively limited when it comes to teacher personality. We were unable to examine teacher traits in relation to teacher-student conflict and dependency, but, overall, agreeable and conscientious teacher behaviors appeared to be important for favorable interactions, whereas teacher neuroticism may undermine the quality of such interactions.

Effects of Cognitive Flexibility, Prosocial and Problem Behaviours, Parenting Style and Social Support on Social Adaptation Among Children With Leukaemia: A Structural Equation Modelling Approach.

Leukaemia children often encounter various social adaptation issues stemming from changes in their living environment. Identifying and optimising the factors associated with social adaptation is crucial in improving social adaptation in children with leukaemia. To investigate social adaptation in children with leukaemia and to clarify the impact pathway of cognitive flexibility, problem behaviour, prosocial behaviour, parenting style and social support on social adaptation. Using a convenience sampling method, 264 leukaemia children completed a cross-sectional survey. Data were collected using the Social Adaptation Assessment Scale for Children with Leukaemia, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, Cognitive Flexibility Scale, Short-Egna Minnenav Barndoms Uppfostran and Multi-Dimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Structural equation modelling was used to test the influencing factors of social adaptation. Social support directly influenced social adaptation (β = 0.19, p < 0.01) and indirectly influenced social adaptation through prosocial behaviour (β = 0.06, p < 0.01) and problem behaviour (β = 0.18, p < 0.01). Prosocial behaviour (β = 0.17, p < 0.01) and problem behaviour (β = -0.61, p < 0.01) directly influenced social adaptation. Negative parenting directly influenced social adaptation (β = 0.12, p < 0.01) and indirectly influenced social adaptation (β = -0.23, p < 0.01) through problem behaviour. Our finding indicated that there are prominent social adjustment problems in the recovery process of children with leukaemia. These findings suggest that targeted education is needed to enhance social adaptation among children with leukaemia. The final model should serve as a framework to guide intervention research targeting social support and negative parenting to improve the social adaptation of children with leukaemia. During the recovery process, nurses need to regularly follow up on the children's social adaptation and encourage them to participate in social activities to increase social support while providing family guidance based on improving parenting styles. The subjects of this study were children with leukaemia aged 8-18 years. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Abstract Strengths and difficulties Lithuania

Abstract Background Most mental health disorders begin before the age of 18, peaking at 14.5 years (Solmi, 2022) and manifest as emotional and behavioural difficulties that are more frequent in institutional social care (ISC): former foster care recipients have higher rates of depression and PTSD than the general population (Pecora, 2009). The rate of children living in residential care facilities in Europe and Central Asia is double the global average (UNICEF, 2024). This study aims to assess and compare the mental health of children in ISC centers and regular high schools. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted in ISC centres and high schools in 2022-2023. The sample size consisted of children aged 11-17 living in ISC (n = 49) or in families (n = 193). Online anonymous survey was applied to assess the prevalence of endured violence, substance use and measure mental health outcomes using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ-25). Results A total of 242 respondents (age mean 14.6, SD = 2.12) in ISC and families showed similar poor mental health rates (42% and 44%, respectively). Prosocial behaviour problems were exhibited more by boys (p &amp;lt; 0.05), whereas emotional symptoms were more common in families (p &amp;lt; 0.001): 90% normal SDQ-25 scores in ISC vs 60% in families. Enduring psychological (38% vs 60.2%) violence was more prevalent among children in families (p &amp;lt; 0.05); smoking - in ISC, alcohol use - in families (p &amp;lt; 0.05). In both groups enduring physical violence was associated with smoking and alcohol use (p &amp;lt; 0.05), and overall poor SDQ-25 results strongly correlated (p &amp;lt; 0.001, r = 0.815, r = 0.610, respectively) with hyperactivity. Conclusions A significant part of study participants reported poor mental health outcomes with most problems in relationships with peers. Mental health risk factors such as violence or substance abuse are associated with poor emotional wellbeing while being more common among children living with families. Key messages • Children living in ISC and in families demonstrate similar level of mental health problems. • Varying prevalence of substance abuse among children living in different settings highlights the importance of environmental factors when addressing the issue.

7.Y.2. Solidarity and public health teaching and practice in the age of new normal

Abstract This workshop will address the concept and topic of solidarity as it pertains to public health (PH). The objectives of the workshop are: • To explore what is understood by solidarity in the context of PH; • To consider the PH scenarios in which solidarity may be an important construct; • To consider how solidarity is understood by PH experts and practitioners, and • To profile investigate how solidarity is represented in educational and training programme in PH. Solidarity is a social determinant of health. It is proven as a crucial factor in achieving PH objectives such as: compliance with vaccination campaigns; donations of bodily samples to biobanks; or refraining from polluting. It can be defined as a cost taken upon oneself for the sake of a group with which one identifies (Prainsack and Buyx 2017). As PH is about achieving health objectives through public participation, solidarity can be seen as the kernel of PH practice. In an era with emerging PH threats, from pandemics to climate crises, the importance of understanding the many meanings and uses of solidarity is essential to PH practitioners. There is much more in solidarity than meets the eye. Solidarity is largely a mystification of a collective identity, a boundary-making mechanism that draw the line between ‘us’ and ‘them’, and most importantly, it is the generator of what is understood as ‘public’. Facing increasing challenges in PH, solidarity is a concept to be thoroughly apprehended. Is there one solidarity, or rather multiple solidarities? What are the referent publics of different solidarities and how do they interact? Can be a global solidarity? Is solidarity a normative or descriptive concept? Is solidarity the outcome or the generator of pro-social behaviour. These are questions that will be discussed in this round table workshop session. Curious to learn about PH views on solidarity, we conducted structured interviews with PH experts to ascertain views on solidarity as a key concept in PH; whether the concept should be incorporated into PH education programme, and if so, how best to do that. Preliminary findings suggest that all interviewees agreed that solidarity is a key concept in PH but when asked to define solidarity, provided diverse answers. They acknowledged that solidarity should be taught in different stages of PH education, but admitted that it rarely appears in current curricula. Many interviewees stated that solidarity may be culturally and politically determined and should be discussed through case studies and guest lectures as well as theory. The added value of this workshop is to raise awareness about the importance of the concept of solidarity and its importance in PH education and training programmes. The workshop will run as a Round table discussion, in which each panellist will make a short presentation on a specific subject, which will then be discussed between panel members and audience. Key messages • Solidarity is considered a key concept for the practice of public health, yet has been constantly contested as too vague and even too political. • Presenting key challenges facing the teaching of solidarity as competence in public health; its conceptual ambiguities and cultural differences and the different uses of solidarity as a value and tool. Speakers/Panelists Farhang Tahzib Faculty of Public Health, Haywards heath, UK Mary Codd University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland Alison Mc Callum University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Hagai Boas Van Leer Jerusalem Institute, Jerusalem, Israel

Does Prosocial Automation Increase Driver’s Well-being?

As societies transition to hybrid mobility systems, interactions between automated vehicles (AVs) and human users in public spaces become more complex, highlighting the critical role of prosocial behaviors. These behaviors are essential for the seamless operation of interdependent transportation networks, helping to address integration challenges of AVs with human-operated vehicles and enhancing well-being by creating more efficient, less stressful, and inclusive environments. This study explores the impact of receiving prosocial behaviors on the cognition, riding performance, and well-being of micromobility users in simulated urban traffic scenarios. Using a mixed-method design, the research contrasts two types of social interactions—prosocial and asocial—across three temporal conditions: relaxed, neutral, and urgent. The Structural Equation Modeling underscored the intricate relationships between prosocial behaviors, satisfaction, cognition, riding performance, and well-being. Incorporating social factors into driving systems could enhance safety and improve urban mobility solutions.

The Mediating Role of Social Interactions and Early Psychopathological Symptoms in the Relationship Between Empathy and Prosociality in Young Children with ASD and Neurotypical Peers.

This study examined the relationship between empathy, prosocial behaviour, social interactions and early psychopathological symptoms (internalising and externalising behaviours) in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and typically developing (TD) children. A total of 506 parents of children aged 18-48 months participated in this study. The parents of 92 children with ASD and 414 neurotypical children completed the Empathy Questionnaire, the Child Prosocial Behaviour Questionnaire, and the Emotional and Social Development Questionnaire. The results confirmed the direct relationship between empathy and prosocial behaviour in both groups. However, the findings showed a different pattern of the indirect relationship between empathy and prosociality through the social dimensions in the children with ASD compared to their typically developing peers. In the children with ASD, there was only one significant indirect path from empathy to prosocial behaviour - through internalising behaviours (anxiety). Anxiety also played a moderating role in this relationship. The higher the anxiety, the stronger the relationship between empathy and prosociality. In the neurotypical group, social interactions were a significant mediator, strengthening the relationship between empathy and prosocial behaviour. Externalising behaviours weakened this relationship. Intergroup and gender differences were also examined. These findings may have practical implications for social skills training programmes based on behavioural interventions by highlighting the importance of prosocial behaviour for social interaction and protection against psychopathological problems in children with autism and typically developing children.

Communication as a Tool for Exhibiting Prosocial Behavior in Dogs.

Studies suggest that dogs exhibit prosocial behaviors toward humans and can rescue their guardians trapped in a box. We investigated whether dogs could communicate with an experimenter to gain access to a crying actor (the crying condition) who was visible but inaccessible, as she remained behind a fence throughout the test, or when she was simply speaking (the neutral condition). This experimenter was positioned to allow access to the actor, and the dog was free to move within the environment. Our findings indicate that dogs alternated their gazes more frequently between the actor and the experimenter, as well as between the actor and the dog's guardian when the inaccessible actor was crying. Furthermore, the number of gazes at the guardian and the actor, as well as the duration of gazing at the actor, were greater in the crying condition. Dogs also remained closer to the actor during the crying condition. Our results suggest the dog made more communicative signals in the crying condition, bringing to light the possibility that this communication was being used as a tool to exhibit prosocial behaviors toward the actor.