Private Security Providers Research Articles

Insecurity, Counterterrorism and the Use of Private Military and Security Companies in Nigeria: A Qualitative Study

Insecurity and terrorism pose significant concerns in Nigeria. Yet, there is a paucity of research on citizens’ and private security providers’ (PSP) perceptions of Nigeria’s response to insecurity and the use of Private Military and Security Companies (PMSCs). The study adopts a qualitative approach, and data was collected using semi-structured interviews with 63 participants, including PSP, non-governmental organisations and lay participants from the public and private sectors in Nigeria. Thematic analysis from a social constructionist theoretical lens was used to analyse the data. The study found a lack of confidence in the Nigerian security forces, scepticism towards the perceived government’s insincere politicisation of military victory, positive reinforcement of the use of private military companies devoid of identity, ‘othering’, and perceived short-term use of private military security. It also found a perceived mistrust for government approaches in handling insecurity and a positive outlook towards involving PMSCs and mercenaries in combating terrorism regardless of the participants’ identities as Nigerians. In conclusion, the study recommends the need for policies to strengthen Nigerian security agencies to avoid a perceived trust for PMSCs instead of state security.

Volunteer Security Outfit and the Fight against Terrorism in Nigeria: A Study of Civilian Joint Task Force in Borno State

The war waged by the Nigerian military against Boko Haram insurgency in Borno State and the North-East at large had suffered setbacks as the complexity of the contemporary security challenges overwhelms the public security sector and therefore government has subscribed to the need to extend the security sector to include ‘private security providers’ and the citizens as stakeholders. This study assessed volunteer security outfit and the fight against terrorism in Nigeria with focus on Civilian Joint Task Force (CJTF) in Borno State. The study employed a qualitative method and the Partnership Theory of Crime Prevention and Resistance Theory was adopted as the theoretical framework for the study. KIIs were conducted with ten (10) stakeholders from different professions. Data elicited through KII was analyzed thematically. The study findings revealed that volunteer security outfit is an approach in combating terrorism in Nigeria. The findings further revealed that Civilian JTF activities have helped other government security agencies in coordinating and arresting key Boko Haram members in Borno State thereby becoming a fundamental component to assisting and winning the war against Boko Haram insurgency. The study therefore recommends that educating and sensitizing members of the community and CJTF to be alert to their patriotic duty of reporting crime and illegal entry of other nationals should be advocated and intensified by the Borno State government. The study further recommends that with the current insecurity confronting Nigeria, establishment of local vigilante group of youth in communities across Nigeria should be encouraged to assist and support the security agencies. Since terrorism is a global problem, countries should adopt volunteer security outfit model to end organised crime and terrorism. This should be executed with the highest sense of local ownership and in collaboration with key stakeholders in their domain. Above all, for lasting peace, security and stability to prevail in Borno State, committed and sincere leadership should be demonstrated at all levels of governance in the State.

Private Military and Security Companies as a Legacy of War: Lessons Learned From the Former Yugoslavia

AbstractThe war in the former Yugoslavia produced many highly trained and experienced combatants, some of whom engaged not only in a variety of organized criminal activities such as the illicit trade of natural resources, trafficking and corruption, but also war crimes. In the post-war environment various criminal groups took advantage of post-conflict transition conditions which enabled them to be transformed into legitimate legal entities. The failure to investigate and hold to account those involved in criminal activity meant that demobilized soldiers turned to highly profitable, legally constituted private military and security companies (PMSCs). This is coupled with poorly designed security sector reforms that often fail to enhance effective and accountable security that is respectful of human rights. In recent years, similar transformations of many former combatants and criminal groups into legitimate PMSCs around the globe have raised new concerns about their growing activities across different sectors. This article uses the former Yugoslavia as an example from which to highlight some of the increasingly common problems posed by the creation of private military and security providers globally, as a result of the current uncoordinated processes to prevent armed conflicts. The article reflects on the need to avoid smart sanctions and use other foreign policy tools, while calling for an integrated approach to security sector reform and transitional justice that is necessary for sustainable peace.

A budapesti bulinegyed vizsgálata a magán- és közbiztonság szempontjából

Aim: The aim of the study is a presentation of the private and public safety problems of the challenging everyday life of a popular and well-known entertainment district – Budapest VII. District Inner Erzsébetváros, known colloquially as the "party district".Methodology: The authors of this study – law enforcement professionals – focus on the history of the Gozsdu yard, the organizational peculiarities of the preparation of music and dance events accompanied by disaster pervention. They are highlighting via domestic and international examples the role of law enforcement agencies, private security providers, auxiliary police and the municipal police, and examining the added value of supervision activities to create security.Findings: Nowadays, with the outmoded paradigm of policing as a state monopoly, one can witness the necessary pluralization of policing, private security and civil policing coming to the fore, which is tantamount to breaking the monopoly of the state policing. The private security sector of our country began to develop after the regime change and has now become an indispensable player in the maintenance of public order and public safety. One of the most striking examples, in which all of this can be seen in action, is the implementation of intertwining private and public security activities related to the provision of music and dance events.Value: Law enforcement scientists must strive to examine the emerging problems on as many levels and perspectives as possible, with sufficient scientific thoroughness. The methodological approach must be based on an inquisitive attitude that seeks to understand the social phenomena that frame the reality of policing at both an institutional and individual level. Their study helps with this.

Is someone’s mercenary another’s contractor? American, British, and Russian private security companies in US and UK parliamentary debates

Scholars disagree on whether an anti-mercenary norm exists, whether today’s private military and security companies (PMSCs) fall under its scope, and whether the privatization of security erode parliamentary control over the use of force. We contribute to these debates by conducting a content analysis of parliamentary debates on PMSCs in the UK and US (2001–2019). Our results show that American and British politicians engage in a vehement, bipartisan criticism of Russian PMSCs, whose employees are consistently stigmatized as ruthless mercenaries irrespective of the activities they perform. Criticism of their own government’s use of PMSCs, by contrast, is more nuanced and largely made by liberal and social democratic politicians only. These findings support the argument that an anti-mercenary norm narrowly focused on for-profit providers of combat still exists, but also highlights that its interpretation is biased by nationalism and politico-economic preferences, which shape the frequency and nature of politicians’ stigmatization of private security providers

The Borderline between Private and Public Security

A few years ago, a White Paper was published by the Confederation of European Security Services (CoESS) with the collaboration of the Institut National des Hautes Études de Sécurité (INHES) on the security market of the European Union. The authors identified several reasons why public and private security providers in the member states share the market and why they are bound to cooperate for the public good, that is, the security itself. However, the states’ law enforcement capacities cannot cover all security demands of the public due to the finite (mainly budgetary) resources that always set capacity limits hence congestions in the assignments of police services occur from time to time. Private security operatives fill into the supply gaps occurring in a fragmented security landscape in Europe. Due to the variables in the market share, countries made their patterns in public and private security components, the statutory frameworks, and the traditions concerning the role played by the commercial security sector in overall security provisions. Here a typology may be formed from the clusters of countries following alternative approaches, respectively. There is a border zone between the two sectors. The exclusive public security domain gives way to areas of common interest and moves on to where private security takes precedence, and public actors only play a supervisory role. This article examines the boundary zone in multiple approaches, attempting to stipulate the red line between the two security elements.

Human Rights Obligations of Private Security and Military Companies: A Review of the Current Legal Framework and Practices

The rapid growth in demand for private military and security services among states,international organizations and non-state actors has turned this activity into a powerful industry withmillions of people who perform – on a contractual basis and in exchange for monetary rewards – actions,which, however, often pose risks to the rights of others, local communities and nations around theworld. The author explains the urgency of the article by high-profile cases of possible participationof private military companies in the events of the occupation of Crimea and the armed conflict inDonbas, initiation of new legislation on military consulting in Ukraine and, at the same time, by themodest attention of Ukrainian jurisprudence to human rights obligations of companies providingsecurity services as non-governmental entities. The author examines the evolution of some approaches to the international legal regulation of private military and security activities and their compliance with modern approaches to humanrights. The author analyzes the features of corporate responsibility in the field of human rights ofprivate military and security companies, the content of which is embodied in the InternationalCode of Conduct for Private Security Providers (ICoC). The analysis compares the approaches ofthe International Code of Conduct for Private Security Providers and the UN Guiding Principleson Business and Human Rights.

Influence of Training Levels of Private Security Service Providers in Crime Prevention in Lurambi Sub-County, Kenya

This study aimed to examine the role of private security providers in crime prevention in Lurambi Sub-County, Kenya. The study was necessitated by private security providers' presence and use to protect life, property, and maintenance of law and order in Lurambi Sub-County, Kakamega County, Kenya. The Routine Activity and Situational Crime Prevention Theories of criminology informed the study. Specifically, this study intended to establish resource availability for private security service providers in crime prevention in Lurambi Sub-county, Kenya. The study adopted descriptive and correlational research designs. The primary target population constituted 358 respondents, both male and female, drawn from six registered and regulated private security service providers in Lurambi Sub-County, 5 senior police officers in charge of security, police administration, and 4 police stations across Lurambi Sub-County, and 133 clients of private security services. Purposive sampling was used to identify the 6 registered and licensed private security firms which provided the study population. Proportionate sampling with a statistical framework of 30% was used to identify 108 private security service providers who formed the sample size to ensure that the private security officers from the 6 firms were represented in the same proportion that they existed within the population. Questionnaires were used to collect data from three groups of respondents, including 108 private security officers, 6 managers each in charge of each private security firm that participated in the study, and 40 clients sampled from the 6 private security firms that participated in the study. Interview guides were used to collect data from 5 senior police officers in charge of security, police administration, and 4 police stations spread across Lurambi Sub-County. The study findings revealed that private security service providers were not adequately trained, hence impacting crime prevention negatively in Lurambi Sub-County. The study recommended that private security service providers consider providing relevant and timely training programs to strengthen crime prevention efforts. Key Terms: Training Levels, Private Security, Crime Prevention DOI: 10.7176/PPAR/11-6-04 Publication date: July 31 st 2021

The Role of Private Security Service Providers in Crime Prevention; A Study of Lurambi Sub-County, Kenya

This study aimed to examine the role of private security providers in crime prevention in Lurambi Sub-County, Kenya. The study was necessitated by private security providers' presence and use to protect life, property, and maintenance of law and order in Lurambi Sub-County, Kakamega County, Kenya. The Routine Activity and Situational Crime Prevention Theories of criminology informed the study. Specifically, this study intended to establish resource availability for private security service providers in crime prevention in Lurambi Sub-county, Kenya. The study adopted descriptive and correlational research designs. The primary target population constituted 358 respondents, both male and female, drawn from six registered and regulated private security service providers in Lurambi Sub-County, 5 senior police officers in charge of security, police administration, and 4 police stations across Lurambi Sub-County, and 133 clients of private security services. Purposive sampling was used to identify the 6 registered and licensed private security firms which provided the study population. Proportionate sampling with a statistical framework of 30% was used to identify 108 private security service providers who formed the sample size to ensure that the private security officers from the 6 firms were represented in the same proportion that they existed within the population. Questionnaires were used to collect data from three groups of respondents, including 108 private security officers, 6 managers each in charge of each private security firm that participated in the study, and 40 clients sampled from the 6 private security firms that participated in the study. Interview guides were used to collect data from 5 senior police officers in charge of security, police administration, and 4 police stations spread across Lurambi Sub-County. Study findings revealed that private security service providers in Lurambi Sub-County did not possess adequate resources needed to prevent crime. The study recommended that private security service providers should consider deploying adequate resources to strengthen crime prevention efforts. Key Terms: Private Security, Resources Availability, Crime Prevention DOI: 10.7176/PPAR/11-6-05 Publication date: July 31 st 2021

The Anti-Mercenary Norm and United Nations’ Use of Private Military and Security Companies: From Norm Entrepreneurship to Organized Hypocrisy

ABSTRACT A prominent anti-mercenary norm entrepreneur in the second half of the twentieth century, the United Nations (UN) has become an equally prominent user of Private Military and Security Companies (PMSCs) services in the twenty-first century. In this article, we explain the gap between UN talk and action on private providers of security as a form of organized hypocrisy. To map the mismatch between UN rhetoric and behaviour in a measurable fashion, we combined official data on the use of PMSCs with an in-depth content analysis of the reports written by the UN Working Group on Mercenaries and an examination of the UN Department of Safety and Security (UNDSS) contracting policy. The Working Group’s very negative portrayal of PMSCs and the UNDSS caveat that armed contractors should only be used as a last resort and stands in stark contrast with UN agencies’ widespread use of private security providers. Although a decoupling between talk and action is often inevitable for complex organizations simultaneously pursuing contradictory objectives like the UN, our findings have important implications for peacekeeping. Most notably, organized hypocrisy is in danger of challenging the UN’s credibility as a norm entrepreneur, hindering the effectiveness of its agencies’ outsourcing practices and delaying the reform of UN peacekeeping and crisis management at large.

Police and Private Security Partnership in Crime Prevention, A Study of Nairobi County

With regard to the provision of security services in Kenya, Police and private security function in a mutually exclusive manner. However, it apparent that is essential to develop a formal partnership relationship, because both have several shared goals. Additionally, the private security industry also plays a significant protective role in the country. The study sought to investigate the reality of partnership between the police and the private security in Kenya. It sought to achieve this by examining the existence of any level of partnership between the private security and police in provision of security. The study also sought to establish the existing partnership between the private and public security, especially in places of common protection of public gatherings, information exchange, security and transport of money, information, and private security handing over suspected offenders to the police and how the challenges facing both private and public security providers can be curbed to enhance security. This is based on the premise that conditions for effective cooperation between the police and private security providers are not yet well developed. This study examined how co-operation in crime prevention and policing could be realized and made beneficial to all role players within the framework of a public-private security partnership. The research used both qualitative and qualitative approaches in collecting, as well as analyzing data. Additionally, both secondary and primary data were collected, with primary data being collected by use of questionnaire and interview schedule. The primary data was collected in Nairobi which was purposely sampled for its large intensity of criminal activities and security providers, both private and public. The data was analyzed using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). The study provides deeper knowledge of local security dynamics and gives an insight into measures that could be taken to harness the energies and potentials of police and private security partnership. It also serves as a basis for future research into the country’s overall strategy for providing security whilst contributing to the existing body of literature to address scarcity of data in this research area in Kenya. Keywords : Police, Private Security, Partnership, Crime Prevention DOI: 10.7176/PPAR/11-1-01 Publication date: January 31 st 2021

Private Security Companies: Emerging Protectors of China’s Overseas Interests

An increasing number of Chinese enterprises and citizens are going abroad, which exposes them to risks threatening their personal safety and security of their property. With the expansion of Chinese overseas interests, traditional protection methods fall short of a demand for diverse services, revealing a major shortfall in the Chinese government’s capability to provide overseas security protection for its citizens. New service providers are therefore urgently needed, and private security company are becoming an increasingly popular choice. As this is a fairly new demand, only a small number of Chinese private security companies are operating overseas at present. Difficulties abound for them, such as absence of regulatory clarity on business operation and gun control. The presence of private security providers could also pose a challenge to host nation authority and trigger conflicts. To serve as true protectors of overseas Chinese interests, Chinese private security companies have a long way to go.

Consumer Drivers of Industry Growth and Household Loyalty to Private Security Firms in Jamaica

Jamaica is the fourth most murderous country in the world with more than 100 murders per 100,000 population. Private security firms have grown to record levels and have outnumbered the police and military combined, thus making private security an extremely important part of the security landscape in the country. This article seeks to explain household loyalty to private security providers and the rapid growth of private policing and protection in the country. Prior research has rarely addressed this issue, particularly in a developing world context. Utilizing a final sample of 108 private security customers in Jamaica and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) for data analysis, the study finds that good relationships between customers and security providers and the service quality offered by private security firms are key drivers of household loyalty. In addition, lack of confidence in the police, service quality offered, and the high levels of “indiscipline” in the Jamaican society are causal to the increased growth in the private security industry.

Improving Human Rights in the Private Security Industry: Envisioning the Role of ICoCA in Latin America

AbstractThe private security industry in Latin America has been associated with human rights abuses, particularly in the context of extractive operations. Most private security guards in the region are poorly trained and do not undergo adequate vetting. These factors combined with serious deficiencies in the rule of law across the region too often enable private security companies to effectively operate outside state control and engage in human rights abusive practices. This article argues that adoption of the International Code of Conduct for Private Security Providers (ICoC) by Latin American private security companies and states, coupled with civil society engagement with ICoC’s Association, may help reduce negative human rights impacts arising out of private security services within the extractive industry.

Armed On-board Protection of German Ships (and by German Companies)

Germany reacted to the rise of piracy around the Horn of Africa not only by deploying its armed forces to the region, but also by overhauling the legal regime concerning private security providers. It introduced a dedicated licensing scheme mandatory for German maritime security providers and maritime security providers wishing to offer their services on German-flagged vessels. This legal reform resulted in a licensing system with detailed standards for the internal organisation of a security company and the execution of maritime security services. Content wise, the German law borrows broadly from internationally accepted standards. Despite deficits in state oversight and compliance control, the licensing scheme sets a high standard e.g. by mandating that a security team must consist of a minimum of four security guards. The lacking success of the scheme suggested by the low number of companies still holding a license may be due to the fact that ship-owners have traditionally been reluctant to travel high-risk areas under the German flag. Nevertheless, the German law is an example of a national regulation that has had some impact on the industry at large.

Resilience of public and private security providers: a state-of-the-art literature review

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the empirical literature on the resilience of public police officers and private security guards in stressful situations involving threats, violence, accidents or death. This paper studies the definitions of resilience used in these professions, identifies trends in applied research methods and examines the main topics addressed in previous research.Design/methodology/approachA scoping review was carried out, with searches in Web of Science and Google Scholar, as well as a secondary manual screening in Dutch academic journals. Based on this review, 33 empirical studies were included in the current paper.FindingsFirst, it was revealed that a clear-cut definition of resilience applied to public police and private security guards is currently lacking. Second, predominantly quantitative designs were found to be used in the selected studies. Third, the 33 empirical studies provided insights on four main topics: demographic factors, personal characteristics, interpersonal aspects and resilience training programs. Remarkably, this scoping review did not find any empirical research on the resilience of private security guards.Originality/valueThis study systematically integrates the findings of empirical research on the resilience of security providers to stressful situations. The documentation of research activity, gaps and inconsistencies in the literature offer direction for future research in this relatively new field of study.

Regulation of the Private Military and Security Sector: Is the UK Fulfilling its Human Rights Duties?

There is a divergence in state practice as regards the regulation of private military and security companies (PMSCs), 1 ranging from outright prohibition, to forms of licensing, to voluntary self-regulation. 2 This article considers the self-regulation model as adopted by the UK in order to illustrate the compatibility of such a regime with international norms, especially those guaranteeing human rights. The UK is the home state, that is state of registration, for a large number of land-based and maritime PMSCs. The Security in Complex Environments Group (SCEG) was appointed by the UK Government in 2011 as its partner for the development and accreditation of standards for the UK private security industry operating in the land environment overseas. 3 SCEG is a special interest group within Aerospace Defence and Security (ADS), a trade organization advancing the UK aerospace, defence and security industries; SCEG lists over 60 PMSCs as members. 4 Separately, 22 UK registered companies involved in providing security services in overseas territories or maritime areas are currently listed as members of the International Code of Conduct Association (ICoCA), 5 set up in 2013 to oversee the implementation of a non-binding international code for private security companies, although a much larger number of UK companies signed up to the International Code of Conduct for Private Security Providers of 2010. 6

Security Sector Reform in Southeast Asia: From Policy to Practice

1. Introduction: Security Sector Reform in Southeast Asia Felix Heiduk 2. Security Sector Reform in Southeast Asia: From Policy to Practice Carolina G. Hernandez 3. Eurocentric and ahistorical? The concept of SSR and its limits Jorg Krempel 4. Impediments to Security Sector Reform in Thailand Deniz Kocak and Johannes Kode 5. Superficial Consolidation: Security Sector Governance and the Executive Branch in the Philippines Today Paul Chambers 6. Stifled development - The SSR-CSO community in post-authoritarian Indonesia Fabio Scarpello 7. Security Sector Reform in Southeast Asia: The Role of Private Security Providers Carolin Liss 8. Do as We say, Not As We Do? - Gender and Police Reform in Timor-Leste Henri Myrttinen 9. A Sisyphean Exercise of SSR: Examining the Role of the UN in Timor-Leste Nicolas Lemay-Hebert 10. Conclusion: Assessing Security Sector Reform in Southeast Asia Felix Heiduk

The Scandinavian Approach to Private Maritime Security—A Regulatory Façade?

This article analyzes the legislative processes and the creation of security governance structures in a recent move by Scandinavian countries to authorize the use of armed guards on commercial vessels. Findings reveal that while there are many similarities, the cases (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) differ in terms of government control, oversight, and governance of private security providers, as well as in the management of firearms and the use of force. The article concludes that all three countries have adopted an approach that creates a “semblance” of state control and regulation but which also entails substantial delegation of authority to private actors.

Private Security Companies and Shared Responsibility: The Turn to Multistakeholder Standard-Setting and Monitoring through Self-Regulation-‘Plus’

Abstract The rapid and increasing outsourcing of security services by states to Private Security Companies (PSCs) in recent years and associated human rights violations have served as one of the catalysts for long overdue regulation of the global PSC industry. As part of an ‘empirical stocktaking’, this article focuses on current multistakeholder self-regulatory developments in relation to PSCs, in particular the International Code of Conduct for Private Security Providers and the PSC1 certification standard, and considers their likely impact on the responsibility of states in this area. What is clear is that the traditional conception of international responsibility is ineffectual when applied to PSCs because of its focus on the ex post facto responsibility of states for internationally wrongful acts. Furthermore, the fact that PSCs operate in high risk and complex environments and the fact that their clients are often non-state actors, means that an alternative prophylactic approach to responsibility for human rights violations by PSCs seems to be necessary. As it stands, however, the ‘self-regulation-plus’ approach adopted is not the definitive solution. While endeavouring to ensure that PSCs respect human rights, this approach may allow states to evade their own obligations to protect human rights.