Private Game Reserve Research Articles

Rabies outbreak in African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the Tuli region, Botswana: Interventions and management mitigation recommendations

We describe an outbreak of rabies in a pack of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the Limpopo-Lipadi Private Game and Wilderness Reserve in the Tuli region of south-eastern Botswana. We define the pack’s behavioural response to the disease, clinical signs, and management interventions undertaken and make recommendations to mitigate against future disease outbreaks of this nature. The outbreak, which occurred in late 2014 and early 2015, resulted in the death or disappearance of 29 individuals out of a pack of 35 wild dogs. The disruption to the social structure within the pack, the behaviour of the animals and clinical signs were similar to that documented during previous rabies outbreaks amongst African wild dogs in Southern and East Africa in recent years. Management interventions taken during the outbreak were aimed at preventing extirpation of the pack and reducing the risk of further disease spread to other mammals in the reserve.

Porcine zona pellucida vaccine immunocontraception of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) cows: A review of 22 years of research

Background: The native porcine zona pellucida (pZP) vaccine has been successfully used for immunocontraception of wild horses, white-tailed deer and approximately 90 zoo species for more than 25 years.Objectives: To provide proof of concept and test contraceptive efficacy of pZP in African elephants. Once completed, test the population and behavioural effects on cows in the Greater Makalali Private Game Reserve (GMPGR). Following the GMPGR, test efficacy, population effects, safety and reversibility in 25 reserves with populations ranging from 9 to 700 elephants.Method: Histological sections were reacted with anti-pZP antibodies to provide proof of concept. From 1996 to 2000, 21 and 10 cows were treated with pZP vaccine in the Kruger National Park (KNP) and monitored for pregnancy. Population effects of pZP with Freund’s adjuvants (three vaccinations in Year 1 with one annual booster) were studied on 18 cows in the GMPGR. Another six game reserves with a total of 90 cows were added to the project. The project was then expanded to include another 18 reserves.Results: Binding of anti-pZP antibodies to elephant zona proteins was demonstrated in vitro. The KNP provided efficacy results of 56% and 80%, respectively. The contraceptive efficacy in the GMPGR and additional six reserves was 100% following calving of pregnant cows. Safety and lack of impact on social behaviour were demonstrated. In larger populations, efficacy was 95%.Conclusion: Contraceptive efficacy and safety of pZP vaccine could be demonstrated in small to large populations. The methodology is now being implemented in approximately 800 cows on 26 reserves across South Arica.

Ground-dwelling spider assemblages in contrasting habitats in the central South African Grassland Biome

Background: Ground-dwelling spider assemblages in shrublands and cultivated pastures in the South African Grassland Biome have never been comprehensively studied.Objectives: Epigeic spiders were collected in eight different habitats in the Amanzi Private Game Reserve in the Free State to determine assemblages of different vegetation types.Methods: Three of the sampled habitats were contrasting low-lying shrublands; three were contrasting hill aspects (northern slope, southern slope and plateau) in the Buddleja saligna–Searsia burchellii–Olea europaea africana subcommunity; one habitat was cultivated Digitaria eriantha pastures, and the last habitat was an area in and around a freshwater dam. Spiders were sampled by pitfall trapping in early spring (Sept. 2012), mid-summer (Jan. 2013), mid-autumn (Apr. 2013) and mid-winter (July 2013).Results: A total of 2982 adult spiders were collected, representing 129 species and 33 families. Ammoxenidae was the most abundant family (40.85%), followed by Gnaphosidae (21.26%), Zodariidae (10.80%) and Salticidae (10.26%). Gnaphosidae was the most species-rich family (24.81%), followed by Salticidae (13.18%), Lycosidae (11.63%) and Zodariidae (6.20%). Spider activity densities and species richness did not differ significantly between habitats, although significant seasonal fluctuations were detected. The three hill aspects and cultivated D. eriantha pastures had the most distinct assemblages, while those of the three low-lying shrublands and freshwater dam showed considerable overlap.Conclusions: Our results indicate that the aspect of hills has a significant effect in shaping spider assemblages, while the vegetation composition of shrublands is not strongly influential. The unique spider assemblages of cultivated D. eriantha pastures can be attributed to the absence of woody plants.Conservation implications: This was the first study to investigate ground-dwelling spider assemblages in shrublands and cultivated pastures in the South African Grassland Biome. Our study confirms that hill aspects, shrublands and pastures harbour very different spider faunas. When identifying land for potential expansion or establishment of protected areas, conservation planners should ensure that the greatest diversity of vegetation units are included to optimise the conservation of biodiversity.

Range size and drivers of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) space use on Karongwe Private Game Reserve, South Africa

AbstractMathematical models can identify different drivers and/or habitat preferences depending on the size and area of the analysis. Important criteria for survival, such as water access, may be seen at various spatial ranges while features such as human disturbance may only impact wildlife at a coarse scale. This study analyses the impact of roads surrounding Karongwe Private Game Reserve, South Africa, on a herd of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) over 6 years at three separate spatial ranges—coarse (the entire available area), home (95% isopleth) and core (50% isopleth). The purpose was to determine which anthropogenic (eastern and western public roads) and natural features (rivers, dams and vegetation) elephants avoided and preferred within each range. Coarse‐scale analysis indicates a clear avoidance by elephants for all public roads. Home and core range analyses showed a seasonal avoidance of roads by the breeding herd but not by bulls. Results indicate the importance in interpreting data at various ranges to improve identifying wildlife movement drivers.

MODELLING CARRYING CAPACITY FOR THE THANDA PRIVATE GAME RESERVE, SOUTH AFRICA USING LANDSAT 8 MULTISPECTRAL DATA

Abstract. Rangelands which consist of grasslands, shrublands and savannahs are used by wildlife for habitat and are the main source of forage for livestock. The assessment and monitoring of rangeland condition is one of the most important factors for rangeland scientists in order to calculate the carrying capacity of livestock with consideration for coexisting wildlife. This study assessed the potential of Landsat 8 multispectral bands and broadband vegetation indices to model woody vegetation parameters such as tree equivalents (TE) and total leaf mass (LMASS) for the Thanda Private Game Reserve using partial least squares regression (PLSR). The PLSR model predicted TE with an R2 value of 0.76 and a root mean square error (RMSE) of 1411 TE/ha using an independent test dataset. LMASS was predicted with an R2 value of 0.67 and a RMSE of 853 kg/ha on an independent test dataset. The predictive models were then inverted to map TE and LMASS over the study area. The modelled TE and LMASS layers were integrated with conventional grazing and browse capacity models to map carrying capacity for the Game Reserve. The study indicates the potential of Landsat 8 multispectral data in carrying capacity modelling. The result is significant for rangeland monitoring in Southern Africa using remote sensing technologies.

Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) basking in the sun with mouth agape. Crocodiles do not have sweat glands and therefore open their jaws to avoid overheating. Photograph taken in Zimanga Private Game Reserve (South Africa) and reproduced by permission of Emmanuel Do Linh San.

Nile Crocodile (<i>Crocodylus niloticus</i>) basking in the sun with mouth agape. Crocodiles do not have sweat glands and therefore open their jaws to avoid overheating. Photograph taken in Zimanga Private Game Reserve (South Africa) and reproduced by permission of Emmanuel Do Linh San.

White‐fronted Bee‐eaters (Merops bullockoides) nest in small colonies averaging 200 individuals, digging holes in cliffs or earthen banks. Their diet primarily comprises bees, but they also take other flying insects (such as Ichneumon wasps) depending on season and related prey availability. They hunt either by making quick hawking flights from lower branches of shrubs and trees, or glide slowly down

White‐fronted Bee‐eaters (<i>Merops bullockoides</i>) nest in small colonies averaging 200 individuals, digging holes in cliffs or earthen banks. Their diet primarily comprises bees, but they also take other flying insects (such as Ichneumon wasps) depending on season and related prey availability. They hunt either by making quick hawking flights from lower branches of shrubs and trees, or glide slowly down

The impact of age-class and social context on fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels in free-ranging male giraffes

One of the primary sources of perceived stress is the social environment of an animal and the interactions with conspecifics. An essential component of the response to a stressor is the activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis, which results amongst others in a temporal increase in circulating glucocorticoid (GC) levels. Giraffes occur in a highly flexible fission-fusion social system and group compositions can change on a daily basis, with bulls establishing an age-related dominance hierarchy and showing a roaming strategy in the search for fertile females. The aim of this study was to non-invasively monitor the influence of different group compositions (mixed sex groups vs. all-male groups) on GC concentrations in free ranging giraffe bulls of different age classes. We collected fecal samples from free-ranging giraffe bulls for 12months in a South African Private Game Reserve to examine age- and social context-related patterns of fecal GC metabolite (fGCM) concentrations. We found that fGCM levels in giraffe bulls are age-class dependent, as well asassociated with changes in the social environment. Independently of the social setting, bulls of the youngest age class exhibited the highest fGCM levels compared to bulls of the other two older age-classes, with differences most pronounced when the bulls are associated in all-male groups. In contrast, an almost reversed picture appears when looking at the fGCM levels of sexually active individuals in mixed sex groups, where highest levels were found for the bulls in the oldest age-class, and the lowest for the bulls in the youngest age-class. The study stresses the importance to taking factors such asage-related status and social settings into account, when interpreting fGCM levels in free ranging giraffes.

After encountering a possibly novel odour, this African Wild Dog (Lycaon pictus) sniffed and rolled in it, getting the scent on its body, especially around the face and the neck. The tail up indicates arousal or excitement as a result of rolling in the scent. The adaptive value of this behaviour is still unclear; the most plausible explanations propose that

After encountering a possibly novel odour, this African Wild Dog (<i>Lycaon pictus</i>) sniffed and rolled in it, getting the scent on its body, especially around the face and the neck. The tail up indicates arousal or excitement as a result of rolling in the scent. The adaptive value of this behaviour is still unclear; the most plausible explanations propose that

Faecal glucocorticoid metabolite monitoring as a measure of physiological stress in captive and wild vervet monkeys

The development of non-invasive techniques to analyse physiological stress in mammalian species has revolutionised field-based endocrinology. However, careful validation of the methods used to determine faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) and other hormone concentrations are required on a species- and sex-specific basis. In this study, we performed an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation test on four (two male and two female) captive vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) to determine the most appropriate enzyme immunoassay (EIA) from a suite of available EIAs. Furthermore, we took advantage of a potentially stressful event in our wild vervet population from Samara Private Game Reserve, South Africa, to examine if an alpha–beta female rank reversal increases the physiological stress of those individuals directly involved, as well as other group members. Both our physiological and biological validation studies revealed that a cortisol assay was the most appropriate EIA for monitoring fGCM alterations in vervet monkeys. In addition, we found that the observed rank-reversal had no significant effect on the physiological stress levels of uninvolved group members. Our study highlights that physiological validation is imperative and, where possible, should be conducted in parallel with a carefully considered biologically-relevant test under natural conditions. Overall, our results provide a necessary step for future studies to examine physiological stress of vervet monkeys via fGCM monitoring by validating a suitable EIA for this species. This paves the way for future research into the health and welfare of both captive and wild vervet monkeys, and will allow researchers to assess the behavioural, social and ecological correlates of physiological stress levels of this species.

Male Cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus , sitting on a vantage point and on the lookout for potential prey. Photograph taken in Lalibela Private Game Reserve and reproduced by permission of Kim Madikiza.

Male Cheetah, <i>Acinonyx jubatus</i> , sitting on a vantage point and on the lookout for potential prey. Photograph taken in Lalibela Private Game Reserve and reproduced by permission of Kim Madikiza.

Comparative perch selection in Southern Fiscal Lanius collaris and Fiscal Flycatcher Sigelus silens at Amakhala Game Reserve, South Africa

The Southern Fiscal Lanius collaris and the Fiscal Flycatcher Sigelus silens are common, widespread and sympatric in much of southern Africa. They are similar in plumage and ecology, which may predispose them to competition and interspecific territorial aggression but this has not been tested to date. Here we tested for evidence of competition for perch space. At Amakhala Private Game Reserve, Eastern Cape, South Africa we monitored the occurrence and perch use of both species along transects. The birds do co-occur locally but there is evidence of small-scale spatial separation possibly a result of interspecific territoriality. Perch selection differed in respect of perch type but not perch height. Both species perched prominently in the majority of observations. Southern Fiscals make greater use of Searsia and Gymnosporia trees, whereas the Fiscal Flycatcher makes near-equal use of Vachellia karroo, Searsia and Gymnosporia trees. This may be an example of niche partitioning, though it remains unclear whether the birds actively compete for perch space, or if the separation is a product of different perch preferences, territoriality and the local plant community.

Fine-scale spatial and seasonal rangeland use by cattle in a foot-and-mouth disease control zones

Overgrazing of ranglands and foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) are persistent problems in the communal lands bordering the Kruger National Park (KNP) and the adjacent private game reserves in South Africa. Improved livestock management is needed to address these problems, and detailed understanding of cattle ranging behaviour in the FMD control zones is central to improving livestock management. We used environmental data on seasonal variation in forage quality (nitrogen content) and quantity (biomass) derived from high resolution satellite imagery, coupled with cattle GPS locations, to develop a resource utilization function of cattle space use patterns and predicted spatial patterns of their probability of occurrence in the wet and dry seasons. We calculated cattle resource utilization distributions and delineated home ranges of cattle from six villages by applying utilization kernels using the plug-in method as a bandwidth estimator. The overlap between seasonal home ranges was 61% and between core areas 49%, indicating seasonal selectivity mainly within the home ranges. Cattle selected forage with higher quantity and quality during the dry season but behaved like bulk grazers in the wet season. Furthermore, we found that herds in the dry season usually have smaller home ranges and stay closer to water sources and villages than in the wet season. Our prediction maps highlight seasonal differences in probability of cattle occurrence, with implications for rangelands management strategies to minimalize overgrazing and FMD transmission.

Selective predation and prey class behaviour as possible mechanisms explaining cheetah impacts on kudu demographics

A number of predator–prey studies show that certain prey demographic classes are targeted over others. The possible mechanisms driving these effects can be two-fold. Firstly, a preference for a certain demographic class results in selective predation by a predator. Secondly, different demographic classes exhibit varied behaviour and thus susceptibility to predation risk. To test these mechanisms, a study was conducted on Samara Private Game Reserve to investigate the potential impact cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) predation has had on the kudu (Tragelaphus strepciseros) population. Kudu age and sex data were collected across both predator-present and predator-absent sections using a spotlight-count method. Results suggest that juvenile kudu and subadult male kudu are selectively hunted by cheetah. This was reflected in significantly lower proportions of these two demographic classes within the predator-present section (both 6.0%, respectively) compared with the predator-absent section (16.8% and 17.4%, respectively). These findings indicate that the shift in the demographics of the kudu population within Samara could be explained by a combination of these two mechanisms.

Stakeholder perceptions of legal trade in rhinoceros horn and implications for private reserve management in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

AbstractThe proposed legalization of international trade in rhinoceros horn is a hotly debated topic. South Africa is home to a large proportion of Africa's blackDiceros bicornisand white rhinocerosesCeratotherium simumpopulations. Private owners are custodians of c. 25% of the country's rhinoceroses, and the introduction of legal trade in horn harvested from live rhinoceroses may therefore have significant implications for the private conservation industry. This study explores perceptions of legal trade in rhinoceros horn, and its potential implications for reserve management, among rhinoceros owners and conservation practitioners from private game reserves in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Twenty-five semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants from 17 private game reserves (c. 37% of the total number of reserves with rhinoceroses). Whereas rhinoceros owners were mostly in favour of trade, opinion among non-owners was more nuanced. Owners expressed more interest in trading in live rhinoceroses, and stockpiled horn from natural mortalities, than in sustainably harvesting rhinoceros horn for trade. Informants therefore predicted that they would not change their practices significantly if the trade were legalized. However, most informants had little confidence that CITES would lift the trade ban. The perspectives of private reserve owners and managers should be taken into account in South African and international policy discussions relating to the legal trade in rhinoceros horn.

No evidence for an elephant-termite feedback loop in Sand Forest, South Africa

Termites and mammalian herbivores might derive mutual benefit from each other through positive feedback loops, but empirical evidence is lacking. One suggested positive feedback loop is between termites and elephant, both ecosystem engineers. Termites, as decomposer organisms, contribute to nutrient cycling and soil enrichment, creating hotspots with increased forage quality. Elephant are known to select these high quality vegetation patches, depositing woody debris when foraging, but it is unknown whether elephant presence might affect termites, and if a feedback loop between these two taxa exists. We tested this hypothesis by measuring termite diversity and activity over three months in the summer wet season, inside and outside a long-term (eight years) elephant exclosure experiment in Sand Forest at Phinda Private Game Reserve, South Africa. Termites were sampled using cellulose baits and woody debris was quantified using line transects. Termite activity was not affected by eight years of elephant absence, despite a greater volume of woody debris where elephant were present. Termite assemblages were similarly unaffected by elephant absence. Apart from Schedorhinotermes, all other termite genera were sampled in both treatments. Therefore, the postulated positive feedback loop between termites and elephant is not supported in Sand Forest. However, this does not contradict findings that areas with high termite activity positively influence herbivore foraging, only that elephant foraging does not affect termite activity. This suggests that elephant disturbance (and elephant management policies) has little to no effect on termites and the fundamental roles they play in ecosystems over at least the short-term.

Range Analysis and Terrain Preference of Adult Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) in a South African Private Game Reserve: Insights into Carrying Capacity and Future Management.

The Southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) is a threatened species, central to the tourism appeal of private game reserves in South Africa. Privately owned reserves in South Africa tend to be smaller than government run reserves such as Kruger National Park. Because of their relatively small size and the often heterogeneous nature of the landscape private game reserve managers benefit from detailed knowledge of white rhinoceros terrain selection preferences, which can be assessed from their ranging behaviours. We collected adult and sub-adult white rhinoceros distribution data over a 15 month period, calculating individual range size using kernel density estimation analysis within a GIS. From this, terrain selectivity was calculated using 50% and 95% kernels to extract terrain composition values. Jacob’s correction of the Ivlev’s selectivity index was subsequently applied to the terrain composition of each individual to identify trends in selectivity. Results reveal that adult males hold exclusive territories considerably smaller than those found in previous work conducted in “open” or large reserves. Similarly, results for the size of male versus female territories were also not in keeping with those from previous field studies, with males, rather than females, having the larger territory requirement. Terrain selection for both genders and age classes (adult and sub-adult) showed a strong preference for open grassland and avoidance of hill slope and riparian terrains. This research reveals white rhinoceros terrain selection preferences and how they influence range requirements in small, closed reserves. We conclude that this knowledge will be valuable in future white rhinoceros conservation management in small private game reserves, particularly in decisions surrounding removal of surplus individuals or augmentation of existing populations, calculation of reserve carrying capacity and future private reserve acquisition.

Trophy hunting and perceived risk in closed ecosystems: Flight behaviour of three gregarious African ungulates in a semi-arid tropical savanna

Although being an important conservation tool in Africa, trophy hunting is known to influence risk perception in wildlife species, thus affecting the behaviour and fitness of most targeted species. We studied the effects of trophy hunting on the flight behaviour of impala (Aepyceros melampus), greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and sable (Hippotragus niger) in two closed ecosystems, Cawston Ranch (hunting area) and Stanley and Livingstone Private Game Reserve (tourist area), western Zimbabwe. Using standardized field procedures, we assessed the flight behavioural responses of the three species in two seasons: non-hunting (December–March) and hunting (April–November) between March 2013 and November 2014. We tested the effect of habitat, group size, sex, season, start distance and alert distance on flight initiation distance using linear mixed models. Habitat, group size sex and alert distance did not have any effect on flight initiation distance for the three species. The three species were more alert and displayed longer flight initiation distances in the hunting area compared with the tourist area. Flight initiation distances for the three species were higher during the hunting season for the hunting area and low during the non-hunting season. Flight distances of the three species did not differ between the hunting area and the tourist area. We concluded that trophy hunting increased perceived risk of wild ungulates in closed hunting areas, whereas ungulates in non-hunting areas are less responsive and somehow habituated to human presence. Management plans should include minimum approach distances by tourists as well as establishing seasonal restrictions on special zones to promote species viability. Research aimed at integrating behavioural responses with physiological aspects of target species should be promoted to ensure that managers are able to deal with the behavioural trade-offs of trophy hunting at local and regional scale.

Value perceptions of private game reserve visitors and managers: an exploratory study

Purpose – After identifying those underlying consumer value dimensions associated with the private game reserve experience, and their contribution to visitors’ behavioral intentions, the purpose of this paper is to compare managers’ and visitors’ perceptions of value experienced and value delivered. Design/methodology/approach – Two similar questionnaires with five-point Likert scales gathered the perceptions of 30 managers and 162 visitors. Data analysis included factor analysis, multiple regression analysis and an independent-samples t-test. Findings – Consumer value comprises seven dimensions. Managers’ perceptions of value delivered exceeded visitors’ perceptions of value experienced on all seven dimensions. Statistically significant differences existed for emotional value, monetary price, behavioral price, novelty and social value, but not for reputation and quality. Research limitations/implications – Results cannot be generalized and must be interpreted with caution due to the small samples and the South African wildlife focus. The resulting measuring scale can be further refined and applied to a larger sample of reserves and visitors in an international environment, particularly in African countries known for wildlife tourism. Practical implications – The results suggest a need to align managers’ and customers’ perspectives to optimize consumer value. Identifying perception gaps will prevent resources being spent on elements not valued by customers, and closing gaps will help improve visitor satisfaction and retention. Originality/value – Few studies have examined consumer value in a wildlife context, or simultaneously from a manager and customer perspective. This study identified latent value dimensions and gaps in value perceptions associated with private game reserves.

To kill, stay or flee: the effects of lions and landscape factors on habitat and kill site selection of cheetahs in South Africa.

Understanding how animals utilize available space is important for their conservation, as it provides insight into the ecological needs of the species, including those related to habitat, prey and inter and intraspecific interactions. We used 28 months of radio telemetry data and information from 200 kill locations to assess habitat selection at the 3rd order (selection of habitats within home ranges) and 4th order (selection of kill sites within the habitats used) of a reintroduced population of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in Phinda Private Game Reserve, South Africa. Along with landscape characteristics, we investigated if lion Panthera leo presence affected habitat selection of cheetahs. Our results indicated that cheetah habitat selection was driven by a trade-off between resource acquisition and lion avoidance, and the balance of this trade-off varied with scale: more open habitats with high prey densities were positively selected within home ranges, whereas more closed habitats with low prey densities were positively selected for kill sites. We also showed that habitat selection, feeding ecology, and avoidance of lions differed depending on the sex and reproductive status of cheetahs. The results highlight the importance of scale when investigating a species’ habitat selection. We conclude that the adaptability of cheetahs, together with the habitat heterogeneity found within Phinda, explained their success in this small fenced reserve. The results provide information for the conservation and management of this threatened species, especially with regards to reintroduction efforts in South Africa.