Private Extension Services Research Articles

Views of Farmers on the Structure of Private Extension Service Organization

The present study was conducted during the year 2018-2020 in Khordha district of Odisha to know the “views of farmers on the structure of private extension service organisation”. The number of respondents were selected by proportional and random sampling method. Descriptive as well as inferential statistical tools were employed to attain the objective of the study. the data was analysed by using frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation and correlation test. The study reveals that as much as (90%) of the respondents have expressed an opinion that the private extension service organization should be a registered one. Further 63.33% of the respondents believe that the state government should have control over private extension service organization in some other form to avoid exploitation. 90% of the respondents have the ranked training as the first requirement. 73.33% of the respondents have expressed that the extension service organizations should provide information’s to the farmers once a fortnight. 93.33% of the respondents have preferred that the block headquarter should be the operational area.

Contribution of Mango IPM Strategy for Fruit Fly Control on Household Welfare in Kenya

Mango production and marketing is hampered by fruit fly infestation that is responsible for high pre and post-harvest losses. To reduce the losses, cost of production and increase the profit at producer level, International Center for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) had developed and disseminated Integrated Pest Management strategy for suppression of mango fruit flies in selected counties in Kenya. Despite the rapid uptake of the IPM strategy, the role of socio-economic and institutional variables influencing adoption was not clear. Further, the effect of IPM strategies on the welfare of farmers was still not clear in literature. This study was conducted to fill this gap. The general objective of this study was to contribute towards improved market access and improved livelihood through enhanced adoption of IPM technologies for suppression of mango fruit flies in selected counties in Kenya. Data was collected using a semi-structured questionnaire on a sample of 660 mango farmers from Embu, Meru, Machakos and Makueni Counties. The study employed a multi-stage sampling procedure technique. STATA software was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics, multivariate Probit model, Endogenous switching regression method were used for data analysis. This study found that having a good combination of 2-3 IPM strategies gives the best returns to the farmer. A combination of fruit fly traps, bio- pesticides and orchard sanitation resulted to the highest returns. Education level was positively associated with the use of all IPM strategies available to the small scale mango farmer. This study recommends that the government and other development partners should invest in the provision of formal education and extension services. Empowerment of farmers with formal education would help them understand faster the need to shift to new technology and the effect chemicals when used to control pests to the environment, farm and to the farmer. Farmers are also to be sensitized to seek for extension services from both government extension agents and private extension service providers so as to get service regarding on the use of IPM strategies. To enhance farmer education, frequent trainings on new technologies and innovation, seminars, field demonstrations and field days should be organized for mango farmers to participate fully so that the adoption of the IPM strategies is achieved uniformly.

Economic resources utilisation in maize production: Evidence from Central Region, Ghana

This study was undertaken to improve the efficiency of maize farming in the Central Region of Ghana. A stochastic frontier cost function, applied to cross-sectional data, was used to analyse firm level cost efficiency of production and its determinants. Efficiency of resource utilization was analysed using marginal value product of inputs. Results from the Cobb-Douglas stochastic cost frontier model and a farm-specific efficiency model showed that the mean cost efficiency was 94.95%. Furthermore, all production inputs were inefficiently allocated. Access to extension services, experience and access to credit had positive relationships with cost efficiency. The study concludes that maize farmers are not fully efficient in resource combination and allocation. Improved technologies and innovations should be made accessible to farmers by public and private extension service providers to increase efficiency of their maize farms. Key words: Cost efficiency, allocative efficiency, cost frontier, marginal value product, maximum likelihood estimates.

Does it matter who advises farmers? Pest management choices with public and private extension

Does it matter whether farmers receive advice on pest management strategies from public or from private (pesticide company affiliated) extension services? We use survey data from 733 Swiss fruit growers who are currently contending with an infestation by an invasive pest, the fruit fly Drosophila Suzukii. We find that farmers who are advised by public extension services are more likely (+9–10%) to use preventive measures (e.g. nets) while farmers who are advised by private extension services are more likely (+8–9%) to use synthetic insecticides. These results are robust to the inclusion of various covariates, ways to cluster standard errors, and inverse probability weighting. We also show that our results are unlikely to be driven by omitted variable bias. Our findings have implications for the current debates on both the ongoing privatization of agricultural extension and concerns regarding negative environmental and health externalities of pesticide use.

ACCEPTABILITY OF IMPROVED UPLAND RICE PRODUCTION PRACTICES AMONG FARMERS IN BALANGA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF GOMBE STATE, NIGERIA

The study investigated acceptability of improved upland rice production practices among farmers in Balanga local government area of Gombe State, Nigeria. Multi stage sampling procedure was used to determine the sample of the study. Primary data were collected from 154 samples of rice farmers through the use of structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics such as percentages, means and adoption index were used to achieve objectives of this study. The study revealed that farmers in the study area have an average age of 36 years and 1.8 ha of farm size which implies that farmers were young and smallholders. The result further showed that the level at which farmers accepts upland rice production practices was low (3.9%). It was recommended that public and private extension services should be provided by agricultural stakeholders in the area. Also, young farmers should be motivated to form cooperative societies for easy access to farm inputs such as fertilizer, agro-chemicals.

Effect of IFAD-VCDP on Input-Output Commercialization of Rice Farmers in Niger State of Nigeria

The present research empirically determined the effect of IFAD programme on output and input commercialization among rice farmers in Niger State of Nigeria using field survey data elicited from 111 participants and 185 non-participants (90 and 95 non-participants from exposed and control groups respectively) drawn via multi-stage sampling design. The collected data were analyzed using Heckman’s model. The empirical finding showed that the programme has no effect on output commercialization due to the poor market outlet as a result of no provision of established off-takers. However, the input support aspect of the programme mandate exerts an effect on the input commercialization among the farmers in the studied area. Furthermore, the poor incentive for extension agents, non-productive large household dominated by weaker people and one-way income traffic affected output commercialization among the rice farmers in the study area. Therefore, based on these, the programme should link the farmers with off-takers so as to sustain the viability of the programme even after its life span. In addition, to tackle poor extension contact, the farmers should effectively and efficiently use their social capital to introduce farmer to farmer extension approach by using private extension service as the technical support unit.

Differences in performance of pomegranate growers under public and private extension services

The Pomegranate is cultivated as a commercial crop because of its high income generating capacity. The pomegranate needs a critical care at the production level and it enhances the need of consultancy service for the production. Hence, there are number of Private people working as consultants along with public extension personnel. The affordability of the growers to pay is a key factor for private extension in the area. The study was conducted in Hiriyuru, Chitradurga and Challakere taluks of Chitradurga district with a total sample size of 120 comprising 60 growers each under public extension and private extension systems. The “Ex-post fact” research design was used in the study. The 40 per cent of the growers were under medium adoption category in public extension services and under private extension service 40 per cent growers were found in high adoption category. The growers who were availed public extension services belonged to medium income category (43.33%). Whereas 45 per cent of growers from private extension service fall under high income category. The Benefit to cost ratio was highest in Challakere taluk (3.47) in case of private extension and in Public Extension the highest return was found in Hiriyuru (3.05). The results indicated that the farmers under private extension services obtained higher income by adoption of improved practices. This may be attributed to the facts that the private extension offer recent and competent technological information including marketing services on payment basis.

Animal science Down Under: a history of research, development and extension in support of Australia’s livestock industries

This account of the development and achievements of the animal sciences in Australia is prefaced by a brief history of the livestock industries from 1788 to the present. During the 19th century, progress in industry development was due more to the experience and ingenuity of producers than to the application of scientific principles; the end of the century also saw the establishment of departments of agriculture and agricultural colleges in all Australian colonies (later states). Between the two world wars, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research was established, including well supported Divisions of Animal Nutrition and Animal Health, and there was significant growth in research and extension capability in the state departments. However, the research capacity of the recently established university Faculties of Agriculture and Veterinary Science was limited by lack of funding and opportunity to offer postgraduate research training. The three decades after 1945 were marked by strong political support for agricultural research, development and extension, visionary scientific leadership, and major growth in research institutions and achievements, partly driven by increased university funding and enrolment of postgraduate students. State-supported extension services for livestock producers peaked during the 1970s. The final decades of the 20th century featured uncertain commodity markets and changing public attitudes to livestock production. There were also important Federal Government initiatives to stabilise industry and government funding of agricultural research, development and extension via the Research and Development Corporations, and to promote efficient use of these resources through creation of the Cooperative Research Centres program. These initiatives led to some outstanding research outcomes for most of the livestock sectors, which continued during the early decades of the 21st century, including the advent of genomic selection for genetic improvement of production and health traits, and greatly increased attention to public interest issues, particularly animal welfare and environmental protection. The new century has also seen development and application of the ‘One Health’ concept to protect livestock, humans and the environment from exotic infectious diseases, and an accelerating trend towards privatisation of extension services. Finally, industry challenges and opportunities are briefly discussed, emphasising those amenable to research, development and extension solutions.

Examining the reach of public and private agricultural advisory services and farmers’ perceptions of their quality: the case of county Laois in Ireland

ABSTRACTPurposeThis article examines the reach, the amount, the content and the quality of agricultural extension in County Laois in Ireland as reported by farmers. It seeks to better understand extension interaction in an Irish county case.Design/Methodology/ApproachA structured questionnaire on personal, farm and farming practices was administered to 270 farmers in three farm districts in Laois with registered farm holding being the farmer identification determinant. A systematic approach to finding all farmers in the selected districts was adopted.FindingsAlmost one-third of farmers were not using extension services. A little more than one third had contracts with private sector advisors and a similar proportion contracted with public sector advisors. There were no significant differences between public and private services in both the frequency and type of extension services received. Regarding quality (merit) of services as perceived by farmers, defined as independence, reliability, usefulness and value for money, farmers rated the private extension service higher than the public service.Practical ImplicationsHighlights the differences in both usage of and farmers perceptions of public and private farm advisory services and can guide the promotion of these services.Theoretical ImplicationsComparison of farmers’ perspectives on pluralised advisory services and how farmers rate these services has received little attention in academic research. In the context of services associated with the AKIS, the implication points to the need for greater appreciation of how farmer clients view services.Originality/ValuePluralised extension provision has been subject to little in-depth scrutiny to date. This article advances new information in the area.

Is the type of agricultural extension services a determinant of farm diversity? Evidence from Kenya

ABSTRACTAn understanding of the determinants of farm diversity is important in dealing with food and nutrition security concerns. Access to extension is a key determinant of farm diversity through technology adoption. However, limited empirical evidence exists on the effects of different types of extension services on farm diversity. A truncated Poisson regression was used on data collected from 744 households that were selected using a multi-stage sampling technique. Results show that access to government and private extension services increased farm diversity by 81 and 95 percentage points, respectively. The policy implications are that first, government extension services should be focused on farmers who may not afford private extension services given that the least diversified farms are significantly different from the most diversified farms. Second, policies should incentivize the private sector to invest more resources in the development and dissemination of extension services as a complement to government extension and lastly, there is need for policies that guide privatization of extension services especially in the current devolved system of governance in Kenya.

Food security status of female-headed households in Mubi North Local Government area, Adamawa State, Nigeria

Abstract. This study investigated the food security status of female-headed households (FHHs) in Mubi north local government area (LGA) of Adamawa State, Nigeria. Specifically, the socio economic characteristics and determinants of household food security status of respondents were tested. Structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 80 female headed households using simple random sampling technique from five districts of Mubi north LGA. Analytical tools used were the food security index (FSI) and Binary Logit Regression Analysis. The results showed that majority (57.9%) of the respondents were middle aged, having 1-5 persons in their household and cultivating about 1-3 hectares of land. It further showed that most of the respondents (63.8%) were food insecure. The result further showed that age, household size, educational status, and access to input were significant and therefore regarded as the major determinants of food security in the study area. It also showed that extension service was not significant and thus not a determinant of food security among the respondents. The study concluded that female headed households in the study area were food insecure; it was thus recommended that NGOs, CSOs and other actors should focus more on agricultural activities by providing inputs so as to improve food production and household food security index, furthermore, the result showed that extension service did not influence food security status of respondents, thus, private extension service providers should be established to assist the government in the provision of intensive extension contact/services, this can help to improve food production and subsequent food security status of respondents.

Assessment of Agricultural Extension Students’ Interest in Providing Private Extension Services in Nigeria

Purpose: Agricultural extension graduates do not get jobs and farmers are not getting agricultural extension services, and therefore, both the farmers and agricultural graduates do not receive benefits. The study assessed the interest of agricultural extension students in providing private extension services to farmers, examined their perception towards private extension services and identified extension skills possessed by the students.Research Method: The study comprised all the final year students in the Universities in Osun State. A two – stage sampling procedure was used to select the respondents. One university was selected from each category of federal, state and private. A total of 68 respondents were selected and interviewed. Data collected were analyzed with descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings: The results show that the mean age, mean years of formal education of the respondents were 23.75 ± 2.02 and 17.40 ± 1.16, respectively. About half (51.5%) of the respondents had positive perception towards the private extension service while 57 percent had high interest in providing private extension services. Majority of them possessed teaching skills (97.1%), innovation dissemination skills (95.5%) and communication skills (88.2%). Also, sources of agricultural information available (χ2=22.448), types of sponsors (χ2=6.102) and marital status (χ2=16.535) had a significant association with respondents’ interest in providing private agricultural extension services.Research Limitation: The study focuses on the interest of agricultural extension graduates to provide private extension services; however, these graduates may have an interest in other areas that have not been investigated.Original Value: The study provides an insight to show the interest and capability of agricultural students to be engaged in private extension services as a livelihood.

ANALYSIS OF AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES AND ADOPTION EFFICIENCY IN WESTERN AGRICULTURAL ZONE OF BAUCHI STATE, NIGERIA

The study analyzed the agricultural technologies and adoption efficiency in Western agricultural zone of Bauchi State, Nigeria. The study employed multi-strata fixed proportion random sampling from each village settlement making a total sample of 80 farmers of irrigated farm categories (small, medium and large farms) for the study. Similarly, 200 farmers that enrolled in the E-wallet agricultural technology were randomly selected for the study. Primary data were collected using well framed pre-tested questionnaire. The data were analyzed using, descriptive statistics, Adoption Index and probit regression analysis. The findings showed that 80% of owners of large farms and medium farms (65%) were high adopters and about 48% of the owners of small farms were medium adopters. The results of the probit regression revealed that household size, farming experience, attending agricultural exhibition and consulting newspaper were all significant (P<0.05), farm size (P<0.10) and extension contact (P<0.01) in farmers’ adoption of the E-wallet agricultural technology. The major constraints to E-wallet agricultural input distribution method in the study area were inadequate registration point (27.24%), network problem (23.16%) and registration of non-farmers (20.43%). The study concluded that adoption level of agricultural technologies in the study area was positively related with age, level of education and farm size. The study recommended that agricultural technologies of E-wallet inputs distribution in the study area should be sustained; virile extension services through private extension services, farmers to farmers’ extension approach should be encouraged in the study area.

Lead Farmer Extension Approach and Sustainable Extension Service Delivery in Oyo State, Nigeria

Summary Over the years, provision of extension and advisory services has been the main thrust of both the public and private extension services in Nigeria. Meanwhile, the lead farmer extension approach has been deployed for cost effectiveness, broader reach and sustainability. The utility value of this approach needs to be empirically established. This study therefore examined the extent to which the approach has achieved the intended objectives among randomly sampled maize farmers in Iseyin and Saki-West Local Government Areas (LGAs). Interview schedule and focus group discussion among farmer groups were used for the study. Lead farmer extension approach was cost and time effective vis-a-vis the number of farmers reached and the achieved outcome. Almost 70% of the lead farmers encountered late arrivals and impatience from group members during step-down training activities while all of them complained of insufficient funds for refreshment. About 65% of the farmers engaged in selective adoption of the training items owing to various reasons. There was also a significant difference between the knowledge level of the lead farmers and their respective group members while the group members’ assessment of their respective lead farmers’ performance was high. The study concluded that this extension approach was effective and could serve to complement the efforts of extension workers in the state.

Socio-personal contour, information flow and productivity of brackishwater aquaculture systems - An Appraisal

Brackishwater aquaculture, the farming of shrimps and fishes in coastal areas is practiced both in traditional and scientific methods. A study was conducted to assess the connectedness between the profile characteristics, their information sourcing and productivity levels. The study indicated that systems and states differ significantly (p<0.01) both in terms of profile status and productivity levels. Private extension services were dominant in scientific farming while traditional systems depend on state fisheries departments for inputs and technical advisory. Therefore, taking into account the relative strengths the state departments may partner with research institutions and input companies respectively for technology support and reaching the farmers located in remote locations. Mobile phone applications may be developed and launched for connecting the technology, inputs, services and market with the farming community.

Snapshot of public and private agricultural extension services in balochistan: an approaches for the discipline

Present study was examined the perceived limiting factors within agriculture extension system in Balochistan, Pakistan. One hundred (100) Extension Field Staff (EFS) were selected by using simple random sampling technique for the present study form the public and private extension services. A research instrument based on 5-point Likert scale was used so as to acquire the information from the EFS. Nonparametric Statistics i.e. Mann and Whitney’s U Test (1947) as appropriate between dual groups was calculated so as to find out the relationships between variables that have significance differences at p.005. The results depicted that significant differences were found 4 out of 10 categories regarding the extension teaching methods therefore, null hypothesis 1 was rejected. Further, ten (10) statements observed to found statistical non-significant at all regarding sources of information. Hence, the HO2 was accepted in the favor of alternate hypothesis. Based on aforementioned outcomes following recommendations put-forward. Dissemination of improved and useful information’s to the farmers are the vivid encouragement tools and energizer trends about crop production dynamics in this regard, it is therefore suggested that, extension teaching methods (individuals and groups contact methods) such as demonstration plots, farm visits, home visits, uses audio-visual media, seminar, campaigns, workshops, trainings should be arranged at districts and province level so that activate the entire agricultural extension system. Active crop maximization approach should be implemented in preliminary stages in order to increases the income generations and livelihood options of the farmers.

The Quiet Rise of Large-Scale Trading Firms in East and Southern Africa

The share of smallholder-produced maize sold to large-scale traders (LSTs) has increased from virtually nil 10 years ago to 12 per cent and 37 per cent in Zambia and Kenya, respectively. We examine the causes and consequences of this transformation. LST investment has responded to growing market demand as well as to changes in farm structure and has been especially prominent in areas where medium-scale farms are concentrated. After controlling for distances travelled and other factors, farmers selling to LSTs receive prices that are 4.9 per cent and 3.6 per cent higher than those offered by small-scale traders, and are more likely to access input credit, private extension services, and price information.

Perception as an indicator of soft power: Influence on extension services

Soft power is a new form of power, described as the ability to influence other behaviour or ability to shape the preferences of others in such a way that it leads to the achievement of the targeted purpose. In other words, soft power could be seen as the ability to use the power of attraction ability to direct the preference of others a kind of identification and attraction based referent power denoted by perceptions. Therefore, in the present study farmer perception has been selected an indicator soft power and its relationship with agricultural extension services. Present study was conducted on the 220 respondents in two districts of Eastern Uttar Pradesh i.e ., Varanasi and Mirzapur. Data were obtained on the basis of interview schedule. The findings of chi-square test indicated that there were no significant differences between most of the extension services provided by public or private sectors which mean famer perception towards public and private extension service were found to be different. Finally, the results indicated that in particular services private sector was found to be better than public sector services. Limitations and future research suggestions were also discussed.

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN NEPAL: EXPERIENCES AND ISSUES

A detail study on the experience of agricultural extension in Nepal was done by discussion with experts, academicians and involved agricultural officers of Nepal along with review of different documents, books and articles on the subject matter. Since from the first effort of extension service, Training and visit, Integrated Rural Development Approach, Tuki Approach, Farming System Research and Extension Approach, Block Production Program were the approaches used in the past. Conventional Educational Approach, Pocket Package Approach, Projectization Approach, Farmers Group Approach, Farmers Field School Approach, Partnership Approach are the approaches being followed presently in agricultural extension in Nepal. The extension efforts in the country are guided by the National Agricultural Extension Strategy. Department of agriculture under ministry of agricultural development is responsible for providing public extension service via District Agriculture Development Office (DADO), Agriculture Service Centre, Contact Centre, Model Agriculture Service Centre and Community Agriculture Service Centre at the farmers level. Farmers Group and cooperatives, International and National Nongovernmental organizations, Community Based Organizations and few private entities are providing the private extension services. major issues found in public extension systems are lack of motivation among the rural youths, farmers; natural resource degradation and climate change and sustainability issues; inadequate number of the extension workers and their qualification and skills; inadequate infrastructure and capacity for use of ICTs among the ground level extension workers; lack of monitoring and assessment of impact of extension activities in rural farmers; low level of need based extension coverage particularly for small farmers; ineffective and weak linkages between stakeholders at different levels; low level of education of farmers; insufficient budget and investment for extension activities; domination of supply driven approaches rather than demand driven; inadequate extension services in parts of value addition and market exposure.

Pakistan’ın Muzaffargarh ilindeki Pamuk Üreticilerin Bilgi Kaynakları ve Yayımdan Memnuniyet Durumları

Pakistan has tried many agricultural extension systems and approaches since its birth. In 1988, on the recommendation of National Commission on Agriculture formed by government to look into the poor performance of agriculture, privatization of agricultural extension was started. Currently, more than 500 private companies with public extension departments (multinational, national and generic) with public extension departments are actively engaged in providing extension services to farmers in addition to selling their products. In recent day's world, accountability is very important, without that you cannot evaluate the performance of any sector. Extension service providers should ensure the continuous satisfaction of farmers with the services being provided. In order to increase farmers' confidence and loyalty, extension feedback is becoming important day by day. Generally, evaluation of extension has been focused on farmers, such as behavioral change and also increase in output use, yield and income. Another important factor impacting the success or failure of extension programs may be efficiency and effectiveness with which extension personal deliver extension services. Present study, is aimed at analyzing the satisfaction of cotton growers with public and private extension services. In this regard, data was collected from 95 farmers using pre-tested questionnaire and using the mutli-stage random sampling technique from Muzaffargarrh district of Punjab province of Pakistan. Collected data were analyzed by using chi square test and frequency and percentages. Most of the farmers in the study area are getting extension services from private sector (pesticide companies). Study concluded that majority of the farmers were not fully satisfied with either the public or private extension services, however, farmers expressed partial satisfaction with private pesticide companies. Following these findings, resolute efforts are needed to improve quality of extension services both by private and public sector. Holistic participatory approaches are required to improve farmers understanding of technology, demand driven and farmers friendly strategies are recommended. Total service package should be applied by private companies rather than just pesticide use and disease identification services.