Priority Air Pollutants Research Articles

Determination of gaseous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by a simple direct method using thermal desorption–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

In the last decade, the development of novel analytical methodologies enabled the identification of several environmental pollutants responsible for health problems associated with indoor exposure. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are among the potential hazardous chemicals present in ambient air. Due to their bioaccumulation potential and carcinogenic/mutagenic effects, 16 PAHs are currently listed as priority air pollutants. The main goal of this work was to implement a new and simple method for sampling and determination of PAHs in air by using a thermal desorption (TD) technique followed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry analysis. A detailed study was carried out to optimise the experimental method in each of its phases, including (active) sampling, TD and chromatographic analysis. The results demonstrate that this approach allowed the detection and quantification of the six more volatile PAHs, namely, naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, and anthracene. Acceptable precision and good linearity over the explored range were obtained. No carry-over was observed during experimental tests and the method provided a reproducible answer. The applicability of the novel methodology was tested in real environment, namely, on the roof of a building in an urban area, in a domestic kitchen and in a collective car garage. The method enabled the identification of two PAHs in the field samples, specifically, naphthalene (two rings) and phenanthrene (three rings). With regard to PAHs sample composition, the most abundant PAH found, in the three different locations, was naphthalene, accounting for about 84-100% of the total PAH mass detected.

Confronting environmental pressure, environmental quality and human health impact indicators of priority air emissions

This paper evaluates the ranking of 21 priority air pollutants with three indicator schemes: environmental pressure indicator (EPI), environmental quality indicator (EQI), and human health effect indicator (HEI). The EPI and EQI compare the emissions and concentrations with the target emissions and target concentrations, respectively. The HEI comprehends the steps from cause (i.e. national emissions) to effect (i.e. human health effects), and is the total human health burden, expressed in Disability Adjusted Life Years per year of exposure (DALYs year −1). We estimated a health burden in the Netherlands of 41 × 10 3 DALYs year −1 caused by Dutch air emissions of PM10 and its precursors in the year 2003. The burden due to 17 carcinogenic substances emitted to air, was much lower (140 DALYs year −1). In contrast, when the same substances were evaluated regarding environmental pressure and environmental quality, carbon tetrachloride (pressure) and benzo[ a]pyrene (quality) were of highest importance, whereas the importance of PM10 was substantially lower. This result is remarkable, because for the majority of substances evaluated, the target concentrations and target emissions are based on preventing human health damage. The differences in relevance are explained by the different weighting of interests in the indicators. The HEI is based on concentration–response relations, whereas the EPI and EQI also depend on other, policy-based, principles and on technical feasibility. Therefore, to effectively prioritize emission reduction measures in policy-making, substances should not only be evaluated as to whether emission targets and environmental quality targets are reached, but they should be evaluated regarding their human health impact as well. In this context, the HEI is a suitable indicator to evaluate the human health impact.

Evaluation and Identification of Priority Air Pollutants for Environmental Management on the Basis of Risk Analysis in Russia

Since 1997, more than 30 health-risk analyses were conducted using Russian data sets. These studies demonstrated that air pollution is the most important environmental contributor toward morbidity and mortality risk in Russia, with 90% of the total human health risk coming from the criteria pollutants total suspended particulate (TSP), SO2, and NOx. This article contributes to the ongoing discussion of the magnitude of this health issue in Russia by providing an estimate of both the mortality rate attributed to airborne pollutants and the associated economic damages. The 90% confidence interval of mortality is 46,000–132,000, and the associated economic damages are between 2.6 and 6.5% of gross domestic product (GDP). The largest source of uncertainty in mortality is the concentration-response parameter, accounting for 50–60% of the total variability in the estimate. The point estimate of 87,000 implies that mortality due to airborne pollutants is threefold higher than reported due to tuberculosis, twofold due to transportation accidents, and about the same as that from suicide and homicide combined. By 2002 there was enough evidence regarding potential health hazard and air pollution exposure in Russia to start environmental management reform. In 2004 Russia officially adopted guidelines for health risk analysis associated with air pollution. The next step is to use this health-risk assessment approach as a lead for sensible reforms of the emissions-permit system and environmental finance.

European characterization factors for human health damage of PM 10 and ozone in life cycle impact assessment

This paper presents characterization factors (CFs) for human health effects of fine particulate (PM 10) and ozone in Europe for the purpose of life cycle impact assessment. The CFs express the change in disability adjusted life years (DALYs) of European inhabitants due to a change in emissions of PM 10, ammonia (NH 3), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), sulfur dioxide (SO 2), and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs). The CF consists of an intake factor, an effect factor, and a damage factor. The intake factor was modeled as the change in population exposure to primary and secondary aerosols, and ozone due to a change in emission of a substance. This was done with the models EUTREND (aerosols) and LOTOS–EUROS (ozone). A combined human effect and damage factor, represented by the change in DALY due to a change in population intake was derived from epidemiological-based relative risks of short-term mortality, long-term mortality, and morbidity. Primary PM 10 causes 260 DALYs per kton emission, while secondary aerosol formation results in CFs between 51 and 83 DALYs per kton of precursor emitted. Applying CFs for high and low stack sources separately for PM 10 and SO 2 life cycle emissions can lead to a better estimation of human health damage due to these pollutants. CF related to ozone formation emissions appear to be much lower (0.04 DALY per kton, calculated based on maximum daily 8-h average ozone concentration) compared to the CF for primary and secondary PM 10. When calculating CF based on 24-h average ozone concentration, NMVOC causes 0.04 DALYs per kton, while the CF for NO x causing ozone formation is negative due to reactivity of ozone with NO in areas with high NO x levels (−0.12 DALYs per kton). Total European emissions of the five priority air pollutants in year 2000 are attributed to 4.2 million DALYs for the European population, which corresponds on average to 0.25 DALYs per person over a lifetime (80 years).

Operating Results from Supercritical Water Oxidation Plants

Two supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) plants that utilize transpiring wall reactor designs for processing organic wastes are undergoing testing and operation. One plant is designed to destroy Navy excess hazardous materials (EHM). The EHMs represent organic materials found aboard Navy ships. The plant has a nominal waste feed rate of 45 kg/h and utilizes compressed air as the oxidant. Corrosive wastes, including chlorinated solvents (diluted with kerosene) and lube oils, and a salt-producing photographic solution simulant have been processed at feed rates between 45 and 95 kg/h. Tests have been conducted at an operating pressure of 24.1 MPa and reactor temperatures between 594 and 816 °C. Destruction removal efficiencies of better than 99.99% have been obtained. Priority air pollutants NOX and CO are below 25 and 100 ppm, respectively. Liquid effluent total organic carbon (TOC) levels are consistently below 3.5 ppm. Post-test inspections have not revealed any obvious reactor liner corrosion or salt deposition. A second SCWO plant designed for the destruction of obsolete, colored smokes/dyes and pyrotechnic munitions has been fully commissioned and is currently undergoing validation testing. The plant is designed to process 145 kg/h of a 25 wt % basis slurry of smokes and dyes. The plant uses oxygen as the process oxidant. The reactor operating pressure is 26.3 MPa, and operating temperatures are between 575 and 750 °C. Off-site plant skid fabrication was completed in 1997, site preparation and construction were completed in 1998, and commissioning was completed in 1999. Validation testing will be completed in the fourth quarter of 2000. Production demilitarization processing of smokes and dyes will follow.

Synergistic effects of pollutants on air quality

The Pollutant Standards Index (PSI) was developed in the USA to give the public an overall assessment of the air quality on a regular basis. Currently, the PSI does not include the synergistic effects of the major air pollutants. Synergism applies when the damage caused by two or more pollutants, either to human health or property, is greater than the effect or damage caused by each individual pollutant acting alone. The purpose of this work is to develop a methodology that would take into account the synergistic effects of the priority air pollutants, and therefore give us a better understanding of the severity of the damage caused by these pollutants. The equation suggested is D(P1,P2,P3,P4,P5) = C1A C2B C3C C4D C5E. If it is assumed that the weight constants A to E are equal to one (all pollutants contribute equally to the damage), the equation becomes D (P1,P2,P3,P4,P5) = K·C1·C2·C3·C4·C5 where the constant K represents a conversion factor between the PSI scale and the new Synergistic Theory scale. The value of K is to be determined experimentally by finding the threshold value in the synergistic scale and dividing the threshold value of the PSI scale (100) by this number K = 100/SSC1threshold where SSthreshold is the Synergistic Scale threshold value.