Prior Educational Attainment Research Articles

ASSOCIATION BETWEEN LATE LIFE EDUCATION AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION AMONG U.S. OLDER ADULTS

Abstract This study assessed whether late-life education (LLE) was associated with better cognitive function and whether the benefits of LLE on cognitive decline differed by gender, race/ethnicity, and education level in a nationally-representative sample of U.S. older adults. We conducted a retrospective cohort study using six waves of data from the Health and Retirement Study ([HRS] 2008-2018) that included adults aged ≥ 65 with no baseline diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (ADRD). Cognitive function was measured at baseline and over time using a summary score that included immediate/delayed word recall, serial 7’s test, objective naming test, backwards counting, recall of the current date, and naming the president/vice-president (range=0-35). LLE was measured at every wave and was categorized as “once a month or more,” and “not in the last month [or never].” Covariates included participants’ demographic background, socioeconomic status, psychosocial and behavioral factors, and health-related factors. Of 12,099 participants (median age 71 [IQR=10]), engaging in LLE at least once a month or more was associated with better cognitive function and was equivalent to a 2-4 year delay in cognitive decline than non-participation in LLE. The association was only partially attenuated after adjusting for a wide range of covariates. In addition, the benefits of LLE on cognitive function did not significantly differ by gender, race/ethnicity, or prior educational attainment. This study provides new insights into the protective role of LLE on cognitive function and underscores the importance of continued learning among older adults.

What is the evidence for biology as the ‘heart of eligibility’ to study medicine? A retrospective analysis

The first, sometimes the only, selection tool for entry into undergraduate medicine is prior educational attainment (PEA). This is often further specified to include certain subjects, for example, biology is a prerequisite for entry into medicine in many Asian countries. However, there seems no clear evidence base for this prerequisite. Our aim, therefore, was to carry out a retrospective quantitative study comparing the performances of five cohorts of students (2015–2019 entry; n = 588) with and without biology PEA in Years 1 and 2 Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) integrated written assessments (n = 3) and anatomy practical examinations (APE) (n = 5). The study was conducted at one of Singapore’s three medical schools. Data were analyzed using independent t-tests and Mann–Whitney U with p values of less than 0.05 were considered significant. There were no significant differences in performance on any Years 1 or 2 integrated written assessments. Similarly, in one of the APE, a significant difference was found for one cohort (academic year [AY] 2015–2016) out of five assessments. These results suggest that having a prior biology qualification does not make a difference in assessment performance in the early years of medical school. This information may help stakeholders and admissions committees decide whether biology is required for medical school entrance.

Financial support differentially aids retention of students from households with lower incomes: a UK case study

ABSTRACT Around the world each year, large sums of money are expended in helping students access higher education institutions (HEIs), but there is remarkably little evidence to show whether this investment is effective or not. Here we use data from a UK university to investigate the relationship between financial support and the continuation of students beyond their first year of study. As a result of changing scholarship policies over the course of three years, a natural experiment was created that allowed us to investigate the effect of financial support on the rates of withdrawal of students from households with different incomes. Controlling for multiple demographic and attainment factors (age, gender, ethnic grouping, disability, nationality, household income, prior educational attainment, and local Higher Education participation rates), the data suggest that scholarships improved student retention, but principally for those students from households with low and intermediate incomes. Interestingly, the value of the scholarships, which varied from £500 to £3,000, did not have a measurable effect on withdrawal. We also found that some students who appeared to be eligible for a scholarship and would likely have benefited from it did not receive one, and we discuss the reasons why this might be so. These results have important implications for scholarship policies in Higher Education internationally; to maximise impact, scholarships should be awarded to those most in financial need.

The role of academic self-concept in post-compulsory achievement, transitions and labour market outcomes

ABSTRACT Pupils’ Academic Self-Concept (ASC) has been shown to be related to educational outcomes during compulsory school years, but there is little evidence on the role ASC plays beyond this stage. Using longitudinal data from the English Next Steps survey the authors examine whether young people with higher ASC are more likely to study A levels, participate in further education and attend university. For university attenders, they examine whether higher ASC is associated with attending high status universities or studying higher status subjects. Finally, they explore the relationship between ASC and employment status and income. They find ASC is associated with differences in some of the post-educational routes but not with all. ASC is associated with an increased likelihood of studying for A levels and, for those with the highest ASC, more ASC increases the likelihood of going to university. However, there is no evidence that ASC is associated with going to an elite Russell Group university or related to differences in subjects studied at university, nor is it directly associated with later labour market outcomes once background variables and prior educational attainment are included. However, there will be an indirect relationship which should not be overlooked, as ASC influences A levels and the likelihood of going to university, both of which are associated with improved labour market outcomes. Although not causal, this work suggests that policies aimed at increasing ASC might have the ability to improve students’ educational trajectories, increasing the likelihood that students will study A levels and, for some, increasing the likelihood of attending university. Both of these are pivotal educational cross-roads, so influencing routes at these points not only has the potential to improve opportunities for individuals, but also widen access to HE among groups with traditionally lower participation rates, thereby improving later outcomes, indirectly.

BMAT's predictive validity for medical school performance: A retrospective cohort study

BackgroundAlthough used widely, there is limited evidence of the BioMedical Admissions Test's (BMAT) predictive validity and incremental validity over prior educational attainment (PEA). We investigated BMAT's predictive and incremental validity for performance in two undergraduate medical schools, Imperial College School of Medicine (ICSM), UK, and Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine (LKCMedicine), Singapore. Our secondary goal was to compare the evidence collected with published evidence relating to comparable tools.MethodsThis was a retrospective cohort study of four ICSM (1188 students, entering 2010–2013) and three LKCMedicine cohorts (222 students, 2013–2015). We investigated associations between BMAT Section 1 (‘Thinking Skills’), Section 2 (‘Scientific Knowledge and Applications’) and Section 3a (‘Writing Task’) scores, with written and clinical assessment performance across all programme years. Incremental validity was investigated over PEA (A‐levels) in a subset of ICSM students.ResultsWhen BMAT sections were investigated independently, Section 2 scores predicted performance on all written assessments in both institutions with mainly small effect sizes (standardised coefficient ranges: ICSM: 0.08–0.19; LKCMedicine: 0.22–0.36). Section 1 scores predicted Years 5 and 6 written assessment performance at ICSM (0.09–0.14) but nothing at LKCMedicine. Section 3a scores only predicted Year 5 clinical assessment performance at ICSM with a coefficient <0.1. There were no positive associations with standardised coefficients >0.1 between BMAT performance and clinical assessment performance. Multivariable regressions confirmed that Section 2 scores were the most predictive. We found no clear evidence of incremental validity for any BMAT section scores over A‐level grades.DiscussionSchools who wish to assess scientific knowledge independently of A‐levels may find BMAT Section 2 useful. Comparison with previous studies indicates that, overall, BMAT seems less useful than comparable tools. Larger scale studies are needed. Broader questions regarding why institutions adopt certain admissions tests, including those with little evidence, need consideration.

Trends in Cesarean Delivery by Race and Ethnicity Among Women With Advanced Maternal Age, 2014–2018 [A148

INTRODUCTION: There has been an overall decrease of cesarean deliveries in the United States over recent years. We sought to determine if this trend was consistent in the advanced maternal age (AMA) population, and if there were disparities based on maternal race and ethnicity. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study including singleton, non-anomalous deliveries with a gestational age ≥20 weeks and maternal age ≥35 in the United States from 2014 to 2018. Our study included repeat cesarean delivery. Analyses were stratified by maternal race/ethnicity, including non- Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaskan Native (AI/AN), non-Hispanic Asian or Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander (NHPI), non-Hispanic multiracial, and Hispanic. We performed multivariable logistic regression followed by calculation of adjusted predicted probabilities to estimate the fraction of births cesarean delivery. Confounders assessed included diabetes status, prior cesarean delivery, age, parity, BMI, cigarette use, educational attainment, and insurance type. RESULTS: There were 3,094,296 births included in this study. Black women had the highest probability of cesarean delivery from 2014 to 2018. Non-Hispanic AI/AN women had the lowest probability. The predicted probability of cesarean delivery was lower in 2018 than 2014 for all maternal race and ethnicity groups. The largest decline was seen in Black women, decreasing from 45.5% to 43.8% from 2014 to 2018. CONCLUSION: Cesarean deliveries are decreasing among all pregnant women with AMA. However, there are disparities in this outcome when accounting for maternal race and ethnicity, with Black women most at risk.

Distance education students’ satisfaction: Do work and family roles matter?

The perceived flexibility of distance education, whereby students can juggle their multiple life roles, is often cited as the predominant reason for enrolling in this mode of study. Nonetheless, for distance learners their multiple roles often have a significant impact on their study experience. This study had three objectives: (1) to explore whether the paid worker role or family role predict distance learners’ satisfaction; (2) to examine the relationship between role conflict and role facilitation regarding distance learners’ satisfaction; and (3) to investigate the role of sociodemographic characteristics as potential moderators in this relationship. The analyses drew on data from 318 online distance learners. Students who reported living with children were less likely to report satisfaction with their educational experience, even after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics. The experience of role conflict and role facilitation was significantly associated with student satisfaction, although patterns differed according to students’ prior educational attainment.

Moving on up: ‘first in family’ university graduates in England

ABSTRACT This paper provides the first quantitative analysis on ‘first in family’ (FiF) university graduates in the UK. Using a nationally representative dataset that covers a recent cohort in England, we identify the proportion of FiF young people at age 25 as 18%, comprising nearly two-thirds of university graduates. Comparing groups with no parental higher education we find that ethnic minorities and those with higher levels of prior attainment are more likely to become a FiF, while those who are FiF are more likely to study Law, Economics and Management and less likely to study other Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities than students whose parents are graduated. We also find evidence that FiF students are less likely to graduate from elite universities and are at greater risk of dropout in general, even after prior educational attainment and socioeconomic status are taken into account.

Success at Veterinary School: Evaluating the Influence of Intake Variables on Year-1 Examination Performance.

A major challenge in admissions to veterinary medical degrees is to select those students most suitable for clinical training programs and careers from a large pool of applicants with very high academic ability. Predicting the success of students in a veterinary course is challenging, and relatively few objective studies have been undertaken to identify factors that facilitate progression through this educational experience. Prior educational attainment is considered by some to be a good predictor of success at undergraduate level. The aims of this study were to analyze intake data such as educational history and demographic factors of students entering the University of Edinburgh and to investigate possible relationships between these data and academic performance in the first year at veterinary school. Data were collated for three veterinary intakes, including school qualification, subjects, grades, grade point average (GPA), degree classification, domicile, gender, and age. Performance was measured by marks achieved in first-year veterinary degree examinations. Relationships between marks and the influence of intake variables were statistically analyzed via ANOVA. For school-leaving entrants, the presence of straight A grades in school was linked to better exam performance. Students with an A grade in Chemistry or Biology performed better; A grades in Mathematics and Physics did not show such a consistent linkage with performance. Higher GPA was associated with better performance in first year for students in a graduate entry program. This study shows prior educational attainment does appear to be linked with subsequent performance in the first year at veterinary school.

The influence of neighbourhood crime on young people becoming not in education, employment or training

ABSTRACTThe influence of living in a disadvantaged neighbourhood on young people’s transitions from education to the labour market has not received much attention in past research. This study examines the extent to which social disorganisation, understood as the level of crime experienced in the neighbourhood, can influence young people’s educational and employment outcomes. It draws on data collected from Next Steps, a longitudinal nationally representative cohort of English young people. Using logistic regression and propensity score matching techniques and controlling for family background, prior educational attainment, ethnicity and gender, victimisation and risk behaviour of the young person, the results suggest that living in a disadvantaged neighbourhood increases the probability of young people experiencing Not in Education, Employment or Training (NEET) status at ages 16–19. Sensitivity analysis shows that these results are robust to selection bias.

Driven to Succeed? Teenagers' Drive, Ambition and Performance on High-Stakes Examinations

There has been much interest across the social sciences in the link between young people's socioemotional (non-cognitive) skills and their educational achievement. But much of this research has focused upon the role of the Big Five personality traits. This paper contributes new evidence by examining two inter-related non-cognitive factors that are rarely studied in the literature: ambition and drive. We use unique survey-administrative linked data from England, gathered in the lead-up to high-stakes compulsory school exams, which allow us to control for a rich set of background characteristics, prior educational attainment and, unusually, school fixed effects. Our results illustrate substantial gender and immigrant gaps in young people's ambitiousness, while the evidence for socio-economic differences is more mixed. Conversely, we find a strong socioeconomic gradient in drive, but no gender gap. Both academically ambitious and driven teenagers achieve grades around 0.37 standard deviations above their peers, even controlling for prior academic attainment and school attended.

Disparities in Modes and Content of Civic Engagement: An Analysis Using Data from the Current Population Survey

ObjectiveWe describe disparities in civic engagement along two axes: the modal, describing the extent to which civic engagement is structured, and its content, describing the extent to which civic engagement has partisan objectives. Accordingly, this structure creates four domains of civic engagement: associational–partisan (e.g., voting), social–partisan (e.g., boycotting), associational–civic (e.g., participating in parent–teacher organizations), and social–civic (e.g., talking with neighbors).MethodUsing data from the Current Population Survey and item response theory methods, we generate civic engagement scores in each of these domains for as many as 35,618 U.S. respondents.Results and ConclusionsSimilar to prior studies, income and educational attainment are associated with large disparities in civic engagement across all domains. However, in contrast to prior studies, young Americans are not outpacing older Americans in social–partisan engagement; rather, older Americans are more engaged in every sector of engagement we measure.

How Engaged are American Citizens, and What is Civic Engagement Anyway?

We introduce a new framing that accounts for trends and disparities in civic engagement. We orient along two axes: the modal, describing the extent to which civic engagement is structured, and its content, describing the extent to which civic engagement has partisan objectives. Accordingly, this structure creates four domains of civic engagement: associational-partisan (e.g., voting), social-partisan (e.g., boycotting), associational-civic (e.g., participating in Parent-Teacher Organizations), and social-civic (e.g., talking with neighbors). Using data from the Current Population Survey and item response theory methods, we generate civic engagement scores in each of these domains for as many as 35,618 U.S. respondents. Similar to prior studies, income and educational attainment are associated with large disparities in civic engagement across all domains. However, in contrast to prior studies, young Americans are not outpacing older Americans in social-partisan engagement; rather, older Americans are more engaged in every sector of engagement we measure.

Does the higher education expansion in the UK reduce the returns to education? A comparison of returning-from-work versus fresh out-of-school graduates

Using the Quarterly Labour Force Survey, we examine the effect of the higher education expansion following the Education Reform Act 1988 on the returns to education in the United Kingdom. Compared to previous studies, we make the distinction between fresh out-of-school students and returning-from-work students who typically have rather lower prior educational attainment but more work experience. We find that fresh university students have experienced larger declines in lower secondary-school educational attainment while the returning university students have grown significantly in shares as a result of the expansion. After accounting for the compositional changes, the Matching Difference-in-Differences results suggest that the expansion has significantly reduced the returns to education for fresh students, but not for returning students. Our findings imply that government policy to enrol increasingly academically weaker students into universities could be misleading. On the other hand, university education might continue to be an efficient pathway for some low school-achievers to obtain more education and enhance their productivity, provided they have some relevant work experience and favourable non-cognitive skills.

'First in Family' University Graduates in England

Universities around the world are attempting to increase the diversity of their student population. This includes individuals who are 'first in family' (FiF), those who achieve a university degree, but whose (step) parents did not. We provide the first large scale, quantitative evidence on FiF graduates in England using a nationally representative survey linked to administrative education data. We find that FiF young people make up 18 percent of a recent cohort, comprising nearly two-thirds of all university graduates. Comparing individuals with no parental higher education we show that ethnic minorities and those with higher levels of prior attainment are more likely to experience intergenerational educational mobility and become a FiF. Once at university, those who are FiF are more likely to study Law, Economics and Management and less likely to study other Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities than students whose parents are university graduates. We also find evidence that FiF students are less likely to graduate from elite universities and have a higher probability of dropping out, even after prior educational attainment, individual characteristics and socio-economic status are taken into account.

Do changing medical admissions practices in the UK impact on who is admitted? An interrupted time series analysis

IntroductionMedical admissions must balance two potentially competing missions: to select those who will be successful medical students and clinicians and to increase the diversity of the medical school population and...

What is the effect of secondary (high) schooling on subsequent medical school performance? A national, UK-based, cohort study

ObjectivesUniversity academic achievement may be inversely related to the performance of the secondary (high) school an entrant attended. Indeed, some medical schools already offer ‘grade discounts’ to applicants from less...

Work-family life courses and BMI trajectories in three British birth cohorts

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES:Combining work and family responsibilities has previously been associated with improved health in mid-life, yet little is known about how these associations change over time (both biographical and historical) and whether this extends to body mass index (BMI) trajectories for British men and women. The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships between work-family life courses and BMI trajectories across adulthood (16–42 years) for men and women in three British birth cohorts.SUBJECTS/METHODS:Multiply imputed data from three nationally representative British birth cohorts were used—the MRC National Survey of Health and Development (NSHD; 1946 birth cohort, n=3012), the National Child Development Study (NCDS; 1958 birth cohort, n=9614) and the British Cohort Study (BCS; 1970 birth cohort, n=8140). A typology of work-family life course types was developed using multi-channel sequence analysis, linking annual information on work, partnerships and parenthood from 16 to 42 years. Work-family life courses were related to BMI trajectories using multi-level growth models. Analyses adjusted for indicators of prior health, birthweight, child BMI, educational attainment and socioeconomic position across the life course, and were stratified by gender and cohort.RESULTS:Work-family life courses characterised by earlier transitions to parenthood and weaker long-term links to employment were associated with greater increases in BMI across adulthood. Some of these differences, particularly for work-family groups, which are becoming increasingly non-normative, became more pronounced across cohorts (for example, increases in BMI between 16 and 42 years in long-term homemaking women: NSHD: 4.35 kg m–2, 95% confidence interval (CI): 3.44, 5.26; NCDS: 5.53 kg m–2, 95% CI: 5.18, 5.88; BCS: 6.69 kg m–2, 95% CI: 6.36, 7.02).CONCLUSIONS:Becoming a parent earlier and weaker long-term ties to employment are associated with greater increases in BMI across adulthood in British men and women.

Predictive validity of the UKCAT for medical school undergraduate performance: a national prospective cohort study.

BackgroundThe UK Clinical Aptitude Test (UKCAT) has been shown to have a modest but statistically significant ability to predict aspects of academic performance throughout medical school. Previously, this ability has been shown to be incremental to conventional measures of educational performance for the first year of medical school. This study evaluates whether this predictive ability extends throughout the whole of undergraduate medical study and explores the potential impact of using the test as a selection screening tool.MethodsThis was an observational prospective study, linking UKCAT scores, prior educational attainment and sociodemographic variables with subsequent academic outcomes during the 5 years of UK medical undergraduate training. The participants were 6812 entrants to UK medical schools in 2007–8 using the UKCAT. The main outcome was academic performance at each year of medical school. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was also conducted, treating the UKCAT as a screening test for a negative academic outcome (failing at least 1 year at first attempt).ResultsAll four of the UKCAT scale scores significantly predicted performance in theory- and skills-based exams. After adjustment for prior educational achievement, the UKCAT scale scores remained significantly predictive for most years. Findings from the ROC analysis suggested that, if used as a sole screening test, with the mean applicant UKCAT score as the cut-off, the test could be used to reject candidates at high risk of failing at least 1 year at first attempt. However, the ‘number needed to reject’ value would be high (at 1.18), with roughly one candidate who would have been likely to pass all years at first sitting being rejected for every higher risk candidate potentially declined entry on this basis.ConclusionsThe UKCAT scores demonstrate a statistically significant but modest degree of incremental predictive validity throughout undergraduate training. Whilst the UKCAT could be considered a fairly crude screening tool for future academic performance, it may offer added value when used in conjunction with other selection measures. Future work should focus on the optimum role of such tests within the selection process and the prediction of post-graduate performance.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12916-016-0682-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Small Firms, Human Capital, and Productivity in Asia

The paper analyzes the link between human capital and firm-level productivity in five Asian countries. It draws on a dataset of over 4,000 enterprises and considers both the prior educational attainment of workers and in-service training programs of enterprises. Differences between small, medium-sized, and large enterprises and between countries are also presented. The key finding is that both preservice education and in-service training are positively correlated with labor productivity. The productivity of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is enhanced by a higher level of skills and education of the workforce, just as it is with large firms. However, there are country differences. The policy implications are that competitiveness is enhanced both by raising the general level of education in the workforce and by encouraging enterprise-based training programs.