Print Exposure Research Articles

Assessing print exposure and orthographic processing skill in children: A quick measure of reading experience.

Assessing print exposure and orthographic processing skill in children: A quick measure of reading experience.

Parameters of exposure equipment for SOR x-ray lithography (abstract)

The potential of x-ray lithography makes it a promising method to fulfill the demands of ultralarge-scale integration (ULSI) device fabrication. The main advantages compared to competing lithographic methods are simple shadow printing exposure arrangement, large field size, the excellent resolution down to approximately 150-nm pattern size, high depth of focus, process latitude, and low sensitivity against wafer topography and against dust particles. An increasing worldwide activity can be observed to solve the remaining problems: the small source for production environment, the 1:1 x-ray mask with high quality concerning positioning and linewidth, the x-ray stepper with large throughput and accurate alignment strategy, and a quick repair system for subhalf micron defects. The high sensitive x-ray resist will probably be available in the near future. At Fraunhofer-Institute für Mikrostrukturtechnik (IMT) in Berlin there is an exposure instrumentation under construction, consisting of the race-track compact storage ring COSY, the beamline, and the x-ray stepper XRS 200 from Suss Company. This contribution presents an investigation of choosing the parameter of the above mentioned setup to ensure high-throughput requirements. Experimental results based on experiments at BESSY and theoretical results obtained by means of the simulation program x-ray lithography modeling and simulation (XMAS) are presented concerning, e.g., resolution and transfer of defect particles.

Decline and Fall At the White House

To isolate the long-range effects of Watergate media exposure per se, regression analysis was used to control for the pre-Watergate levels of political effect variables and usual levels of communication behavior. Data were obtained from a longitudinal study of younger and older voters measured during the political campaigns of 1972 and 1974 and in the midst of the Senate Watergate (Ervin Committee) hearings in 1973. The results show little effect of the amount of attention to the broadcast hearings. In contrast, the reading of the accounts of these early hearings in the print media had substantial impact In addition, print exposure and discussion of the Senate hearings had more effect on the young voters, while usual levels of public affairs newspaper reading and the motivations for using the media appear to have had greater consequences for the older voters.

Exposure Determination Methods for Color Printing: The Concept of Optimum Correction Level

The major work in the field of printing exposure determination is reviewed, and a bibliography is included. A new concept in the use of integrated transmittance in automatically determining printing exposures for color materials is discussed. This method entails the use of an optimum correction level for any given negative or transparency population. This correction level is a compromise between the incompatible correction requirements of various segments of the population.

Presentation of the radiograph.

It is probably fair to say that every radiologist has at some time been dissatisfied with the way in which his work has been reproduced, and that radiographs generally are among the worst illustrations in medical literature. There are reasons for this, but there are also methods whereby the situation may be improved. The radiographer strives to obtain the triad of contrast, detail and definition; to assist him the manufacturer has given him many things, but especially double-coated film. The resulting radiographs may have a density range up to 3 or even higher, and for such dense areas of film the “local bright light” is in daily use in every diagnostic department. A chart, Fig. 1 (after Thorpe and Davison, 1944), translates absolute values into terms of ordinary viewing conditions. The step-wedge is somewhat approximate; the ranges of normal and of high-intensity viewing are shown. This high density range renders the radiograph more difficult to copy or print than an ordinary negative, for all available positive materials have a considerably restricted exposure range (which is, of course, equivalent to the density range of the original radiograph, since the light passing through this constitutes the printing exposure). A radiograph may be reproduced either as a positive, in which the tone values of the original film are reversed, or as a “facsimile”, in which the tone values are in the same sense as the original.1

Photographic Printing Control

In recent years photographic workers have shown an increasing interest in finding a way to predict the best possible grade of paper for a particular black and white negative, and the correct printing exposure time.

The Control of Photographic Printing by Measured Characteristics of the Negative*

A large amount of experimental data has been obtained to determine what portion of the D-log E curve of photographic paper is useful in making high quality prints. Psychophysical statistical methods were necessary in solving this problem. Special attention was given to selecting a procedure which would yield results of maximum practical significance. Prints were made from about 200 negatives using five different exposures on each of three contrast grades of paper for each negative. Most of the work was done with a normal, commercially available set of semi-matte surface papers having six different contrast grades. Additional work was done using glossy and matte surface papers. Every set of prints was judged by a number of observers to determine the best print. The location of the “first-choice” prints on their respective D-log E curves was then obtained from maximum and minimum density readings on the prints and on the negatives. The data for second-choice and third-choice prints were also obtained as a matter of general interest. It was found that the minimum or shadow density of a negative is a much more reliable guide for determining correct printing exposure than the maximum or highlight density. The integral or average density of the negative is nearly but not quite as satisfactory for this purpose as the minimum density. Of great interest is the fact that the useful maximum density of the printing paper was, on the average, considerably below the available maximum density, while the useful minimum density of the paper was usually very close to, and often equal to, zero density. The primary requirements, however, appear to be expressed by gradients rather than by densities. It was found that the limits of the useful portion of the D-log E curve of the positive material are determined very closely by fractional gradients of 0.1 Ḡ on the toe of the curve and 1.0 Ḡ on the shoulder of the curve, where Ḡ is the average gradient measured between these two limiting points. This conclusion has an important bearing on the establishment of a significant method for expressing the sensitometric characteristics of photographic papers. It leads to an evaluation of the effective printing speed and the useful exposure scale of the positive material. The proposal is made that speed be defined as 104/E, where E is the exposure corresponding to the limiting gradient on the shoulder of the curve. The useful log exposure scale of the paper is defined as the log exposure interval lying between the two limiting gradients. The application of these results to the making of prints by sensitometric control is discussed. In general, a negative should be printed so that its minimum density falls on the shoulder of the D-log E curve at the point where speed is measured. A method is given whereby the density scale of the negative can be used with reasonable success to determine the proper contrast grade of paper for making the print.

On the Assignment of Printing Exposure by Measurement of Negative Characteristics<!--<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn110.5594_J05556">*</xref>-->

The theory of photographic tone reproduction, though specific for ideal cases, cannot always be applied in the determination of printing exposure for motion picture, negatives. A statistical study of the correlation of various optical characteristics—maximum transmission, minimum transmission, and total frame transmission—with the required exposure has been made. Of the possible measurements to be made, the value of total frame transmission seems to be the best criterion of printing exposure. The apparatus used in making the measurements is described and the data obtained are presented graphically.

A Trial and Error Method of Preparing a Motion Picture Sensitometer Tablet

In motion picture film laboratories sensitometers or timing machines frequently are employed for accurately determining the printing exposure required by the various scenes of a negative. One type of sensitometer consists essentially of a printing machine which exposes the negative onto positive film through a tablet made of areas of uniform density (each the size of a single motion picture frame) and of increasing density from one end of the tablet to the other. The density of the various steps of the tablet is such that with the proper time of exposure the positive film receives exposures over a distance of nine or more frames equivalent to those given by the various light steps on the printer. By examination of the developed sensitometer strip, the correctly exposed frame is then chosen by inspection and a number on the particular frame indicates the correct printer exposure (Fig. 1).