Principles Of Need Research Articles

The ideological roots of the activation paradigm: How justice preferences and unemployment attributions shape public support for demanding activation policies

AbstractResearch either focused on self‐interest or left–right ideology to explain support for demanding active labour market policies (ALMPs). This article focuses instead on how attitudes towards these policies are rooted in the underlying policy paradigm. We link attitudes towards ALMPs to two pillars of the activation paradigm: distributive justice and unemployment attributions. Structural equational modeling is employed on the Belgian National Election Study data of 2014 (N = 1901). Individuals supporting the principles of need and equity and who blame the unemployed are more in favour of demanding activation. These frameworks and hence the policy paradigm thus have substantial predictive power.

Justice and Inclusiveness: The Reconfiguration of Global–Local Relationships in Sustainability Initiatives in Ghana’s Cocoa Sector

Pressure from the public and non-governmental organisations is pushing lead companies in the cocoa and chocolate sectors towards becoming more environmentally sustainable and socially just. Because of this, several sustainability programmes, certification schemes and delivery initiatives have been introduced. These have changed the relationship between chocolate companies, cocoa exporters, and small-scale farmers. This paper observes how large companies in the cocoa export and consumer markets are shifting away from their traditionally remote position in the cocoa sector. The pressure to ensure sustainability and justice has provoked more mutually dependent relationships with cocoa producers. Our analysis outlines the implications this emerging reconfiguration of global-local relationships has for procedural justice principles of interdependence and refutability, and the distributive justice principles of need and equity. These principles are important because they enable the different dimensions of inclusion: ownership, voice, risk, and reward. This paper highlights and qualifies arrangements surrounding these justice principles that manifest in the way five service delivery initiatives - associated with sustainability programmes and led by major buying companies in Ghana’s cocoa sector – are implemented. We show inclusiveness as an outcome of dynamic global-local relationships that are constantly reworked in response to smallholder farmers’ agency and state regulations. Portraying inclusiveness as an outcome of interactions changes its conceptualisation from a predefined ethical standpoint included in the design of standards to a result of unfolding mutual dependencies, which refashion how inclusive agriculture value chains work.

Pengaruh Kemitraan terhadap Kondisi Sosial Ekonomi Petani dan Lembaga Mitra (Suatu Kasus di Asosiasi Aspakusa Makmur)

A partnership is a business strategy that is cultivated in a cooperative relationship between two or more parties with each other's principles of need, raising, and mutual benefit. The goal is to know the impact of partnerships formed between farmers partners with Aspakusa Makmur Association, know the influence of partnership factors namely communication, cooperation, trust, commitment, and conflict on the social partnership conditions of farmers partners and Aspakusa Makmur Association and know the influence of acceptance, experience, land tenure, and relationship value to the economic partnership condition of farmers partner and Aspakusa Makmur Association. The research methods used are surveys. Sampling using a simple random sampling technique of 53 respondents. The implementation of research started in January - February 2020. Data analysis uses descriptive analysis and multiple linear regression. The results showed that the partnership pattern formed as a general trade partnership pattern. Variable cooperation (X2) and commitment (X4) have a significant influence on the social partnership conditions (Y1), while the communication (X1), trust (X3), and conflict (X5) do not have a significant influence on the social partnership conditions (Y1). Variable acceptance (X6) and relationship value (X9) have a significant influence on the economic partnership conditions (Y2), while the experience (X7) and land tenure (X8) do not have a significant influence on the economic partnership conditions (Y2). The need to expand the market for increased sales and profits, it will increase the number of partner farmer supply and minimize the possibility of stacking and rejection of crop yields.

Needs and cost-effectiveness in health care priority setting

How to balance the maximization of health and concerns for the worse off remains a challenge for health care decision makers when setting priorities. In regulatory guidelines these concerns are typically specified in terms of priority setting according to needs and priority setting according to cost-effectiveness. Still, it is often unclear when and why needs and cost-effectiveness diverge or overlap as guiding priority setting principles in practice. We conduct a comparative analysis of need and cost-effectiveness in the context of health care priority setting. Based on theories of distributive justice we specify three normative interpretations of need and explicate how these relate to the normative basis for cost-effectiveness analysis. Using priority-setting dilemmas we then move on to explicate when and why need and cost-effectiveness diverge as priority-setting principles. We find that: (i) although principles of need and cost-effectiveness may recommend the same allocation of resources the underlying reason for an allocation is different; (ii) while they both may give weight to patients who are worse off they do so in different ways and to different degree; and (iii) whereas cost-effectiveness clearly implies the aggregation of benefits across individuals principles of needs give no guidance with regard to if, and if so, how needs should be aggregated. Priority setting according to needs or cost-effectiveness does not necessarily recommend different allocations of resources. Thus, the normative conflict between them, often highlighted in practice, seems exaggerated. For health policy this is important knowledge because unclear conceptions may obstruct an informed public discussion. Moreover, if decision-makers are to properly account for both principles they need to recognize the inconsistencies as well as similarities between the two.

Exploring the associations between youths' explanations of poverty at the societal level and judgements of distributive justice.

This study explores whether adolescents' societal explanations regarding the causes of poverty are associated with distributive justice reasoning. Survey data were collected from 425 6th-12th graders who answered questions concerning the causes of poverty and a vignette depicting a hypothetical class project designed to assess the degree to which the adolescent respondent would distribute resources based on principles of need or merit. Findings indicated that adolescents who explained poverty based on structural or a mix of structural and individual causes were more likely to base decisions about resource distribution on need, whereas those who attributed poverty to individual causes distributed resources based on merit. Participants who were older, female, Caucasian, and from a higher socioeconomic status (SES) background were more likely to indicate need as a basis for distributing resources. Poverty attributions (i.e., societal, and mixed) had a significant interaction with age and SES in predicting distributive justice reasoning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Principles of Need and the Aggregation Thesis

Principles of need are constantly referred to in health care priority setting. The common denominator for any principle of need is that it will ascribe some kind of special normative weight to people being worse off. However, this common ground does not answer the question how a plausible principle of need should relate to the aggregation of benefits across individuals. Principles of need are sometimes stated as being incompatible with aggregation and sometimes characterized as accepting aggregation in much the same way as utilitarians do. In this paper we argue that if one wants to take principles of need seriously both of these positions have unreasonable implications. We then characterize and defend a principle of need consisting of sufficientarian elements as well as prioritarian which avoids these unreasonable implications.

Fare's fair? Concessionary travel policy and social justice

This paper argues that transport has an important influence on individuals’ welfare and therefore transport policy can be readily analysed from social justice and welfare policy perspectives – yet only rarely ever is. The paper develops a justice framework in which to assess the ‘fairness’ of the eligibility criteria used in concessionary fare policies – specifically the justice principles of need, desert, equality, option choices and affordability. The paper examines a concessionary bus fares policy from a social justice perspective, including an empirical assessment of who in practice benefits most from it and how these findings measure against justice principles.

Cognitive Enhancement and the Principle of Need

In this article we argue that (i) the principle of need, on some interpretations, could be used to justify the spending of publically funded health care resources on cognitive enhancement and (ii) that this also holds true for individuals whose cognitive capacities are considered normal. The increased, and to an extent, novel demands that the modern technology and information society places on the cognitive capacities of agents, e.g., regarding good and responsible decision-making, have blurred the line between treatment and enhancement. More specifically, it has shifted upwards. As a consequence, principles of need on their most reasonable interpretations can be used to support publically funded cognitive enhancement. At least this is so, if broader aims than curing and ameliorating diseases are included in the goals of health care. We suggest that it would be plausible to see health care as accepting such broader goals already today.

Ethical Obligations of Wealthy People: Progressive Taxation and the Financial Crisis

The Financial Crisis in Europe puts pressure on welfare states and its tax systems as well as on considerations of social justice. In this paper, we would like to explore the status of the idea of progressive taxation and its justification (especially the ‘ability-to-pay’ principle) in times of a financial crisis. We will discuss it within a social justice framework following David Miller—using the principles of (i) need, (ii) merit, and (iii) equality. We will conclude that progressive taxation can be justified in the light of these three principles, even more so in the situation of a financial crisis that undermines decent living conditions for millions. The principle of need has to be given priority even if this move violates the principles of equality and desert.

Challenges for Principles of Need in Health Care

What challenges must a principle of need for prioritisations in health care meet in order to be plausible and practically useful? Some progress in answering this question has recently been made by Hope, Østerdal and Hasman. This article continue their work by suggesting that the characteristic feature of principles of needs is that they are sufficientarian, saying that we have a right to a minimally acceptable or good life or health, but nothing more. Accordingly, principles of needs must answer two distributive questions: when do we have sufficient and how should we prioritise among those who do not yet have a sufficiency? Furthermore, it is argued that Roger Crisp's theory of need, which combines sufficientarianism with prioritarianism below the threshold of need, is better equipped than alternatives to answer these questions as well as meeting the challenges formulated by Hope, Østerdal and Hasman. However, Crisp's theory faces two major challenges. First, it has to say something about the currency of distribution: a principle of need must be complemented either with a theory on the human good or a theory about the proper goals of health care. Second, it has to say something about where the threshold should be set. However, any attempt to set a threshold seems morally arbitrary in the light of the sufficientarian idea that those just above the threshold never should be given priority over those just below the threshold.

Responsibility in a globalised environment: a charter of human responsibilities

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore how one can prevent the flaws or dark sides of the globalisation process from leading to ever‐greater decay of responsibility. By decay of responsibility, is meant the threat that globalisation poses to what is referred to by philosophers such as David Harvey, John McMurtry and Paul Ricoeur, as the longing for being and solidarity with the other(s).Design/methodology/approachTo put a stop to the decay of responsibility, the urgency of a broader ethical dimension in globalisation is more apparent than ever before. The threat the globalisation process poses to the longing for being and solidarity with the other(s), increasingly necessitates an appropriate responsible global institution.FindingsOf central importance are the principles of merit and need as possible basis of a responsible institution. The intrinsic logic of the merit principle incorporated in the growth process of globalisation, induces a series of impermissible side effects. Therefore, the traditional correction of democracy giving priority to the principle of need instead of merit, no longer appears to counteract the market economy to be able to provide guarantees for a responsible globalisation process.Research limitations/implicationsPolitics needs to assure the survival of the social community, all the more so if its future is under considerable threat. The acceptance of responsibility implies also the care for the most fragile.Practical implicationsThe paper explains the need of an ethics of responsibility that transcends the excessive ego‐centric globalised society. Therefore, participatory or responsible justice is considered to be of the utmost importance. Participation should be broadly interpreted and include policy makers, environmentalists, scientists, economists, lawyers, ethicists, consumers, farmers and other representatives of civil society.Originality/valueThe present worldwide economic, social and ecological crises have created fertile ground for claiming the need for an internationally recognized charter setting out human responsibilities. The concept of a Charter of Human Responsibilities can be an original elaboration of the concern with institutionalising responsibility.

Risk Principle of Case Classification in Correctional Treatment

Recent meta-analyses have documented considerable evidence demonstrating that correctional treatment programs are indeed effective for reducing recidivism in offender populations. The effect of client risk, an issue that has received extensive coverage in the extant literature from an assessment perspective, has been relatively ignored in these efforts. The present study marks the first exhaustive meta-analytic investigation of the risk principle and its effects on correctional treatment program effectiveness. The results reveal moderate support for its utility, although the magnitude of the findings are affected by the reporting practices used in the primary studies. Finally, the evidence supporting the risk principle is much stronger for female offenders and young offenders and within programs that are deemed appropriate according to the principles of need and responsivity. It should be noted that justice interventions that did not include elements of human service (e.g., increased sanctions) yielded negative results regardless of level of client risk.

Justice in Health Care Decision-Making: Patients’ Appraisals of Health Care Providers and Health Plan Representatives

This study describes the development of two versions of a Health Care Justice Inventory (HCJI). One version focuses on patients' interactions with their providers (HCJI-P) and the other focuses on patients' interactions with the representatives of their health plans (HCJI-HP). Each version of the HCJI assesses patients' appraisals of their interactions (with either their Provider or representatives of their Health Plan) along three common dimensions of procedural justice: Trust, Impartiality, and Participation. Both the Provider and Health Plan scales assess indices that are relatively independent of patients' demographic characteristics. In addition, patients' appraisals of their interactions with their provider were only moderately related to their appraisals of their interactions with representatives of their health plan, indicating that the Provider and Health Plan scales tap distinct aspects of patients' overall experience with the health care system. Overall, procedural justice dimensions were significantly related to patient satisfaction in both the Provider and the Health Plan contexts. As predicted, procedural justice factors were more strongly tied to patient satisfaction in the provider than in the Health Plan context, and health care decisions based on distributive justice principles of Need (rather than Equity or Equality) were most closely tied to patient satisfaction in both contexts.

Mitigating the Adjustment and Change Problems of Retiring Workers in Nigeria

The event of retirement from public service in Nigeria has carried enormous adjustment and change problems among the retirees. This is because rather than being a natural event, retirement is now a nightmare in Nigeria considering the less than satisfactory situation on the ground. Working on the assumption that retirees can still be useful to themselves and the society at large, and using the activity theory, this paper looks into the roots of the various adjustment and change problems of Nigerian retirees. Fundamental among the problems are unpreparedness of the workers, suddenness of the event and generally poor attitudes towards retirement, among others. In view of the degree of psychological damage and trauma associated with retirement, a comprehensive mitigating package was presented including worker education, counselling, phased retirement and age-related skills acquisition, among others. Retirement can still be a dignifying phenomenon if the principles of need, fairness and equity are called to mind in managing the affairs of the retiring workers. (IFE Psychologia (2002) 10(2), 199-210)

Need, allocation and justice — on priorities in the social services

Cuts in public spending and financial constraints faced by Swedish municipalities have led to an increased interest in issues concerning priorities. This interest reflects a practical need to meet current rationing with accurate allocative decisions, where the interests of different areas and categories of users are dealt with in a well‐considered way. In social work, these needs today are obvious. The article raises issues concerning priorities with relevance for social work in the Swedish social services. The purpose is to develop a conceptual and theoretical framework regarding how priorities on different levels of decision‐making are made, where the main focus is on different principles as grounds for and forms of prioritizing. Central are the following questions: What actors can be identified in the process of shaping priorities in social work? What are the principles behind allocative decisions made on different levels of the municipal organization? Which categories of potential and actual users gain advantages or suffer disadvantages from different allocative principles? A theoretical division into first‐ and second‐order decisions and of allocations from notions of efficiency, justice and self‐interest offer the main structure for the article. First‐order decisions are political decision‐making concerning the total amount of resources distributed to various sectors or programs. Second‐order decisions deal with the issue of how to allocate given resources among claimants or possible users. Efficiency is discussed from the aspects of productivity, marginal utility and longterm effects. Material principles of justice dealt with are the principles of need, increment, contribution and merit. Self‐interest is discussed in terms of self‐serving bias, group‐oriented interests and professional gain.

Equity: In Theory and Practice

Governments and institutions, perhaps even more than markets, determine who gets what in our society. They make the crucial choices about who pays the taxes, who gets into college, who gets medical care, who gets drafted, where the hazardous waste dump is sited, and how much we pay for public services. Debate about these issues inevitably centres on the question of whether the solution is fair. In Equity: In Theory and Practice, H. Peyton Young offers a systematic explanation of what we mean by fairness in distributing public resources and burdens, and applies the theory to actual cases. Young begins by reviewing some of the major theories of social justice, showing that none of them explains how societies resolve distributive problems in practice. He then suggests an alternative approach to analyzing fairness in concrete situations: equity, he argues, does not boil down to a single formula, but represents a balance between competing principles of need, desert, and social utility. The studies Young uses to illustrate his approach include the design of income tax schedules, priority schemes for allocating scarce medical resources, formulas for distributing political representation, and criteria for setting fees for public services. Each represents a unique blend of historical perspective, rigorous analysis, and an emphasis on practical solutions.

Sexuality and the Moral "Construction" of Women in an Islamic Society

judgments. In Iran women could talk abstractly of moral behavior that differed from normative generalizations. Women could make judgments about actions and relationships but were constrained publicly from acting on them by what was considered moral behavior in their social class. The contradiction between their own judgments and my observation of what they did (as well as their own accounts of these contradictions) underscores that the construction of women's personal and moral identities can be independent of socially located decision-making. Women rarely had the opportunity to make decisions that affected their own morality given class and other constraints on behaviors, but they could and did when their actions were less visible. Moreover, their abstract moral thinking sometimes focused on principles of individual rights and sometimes on responsibilities; sometimes women agreed with interpretations of Islamic prescriptions and sometimes they didn't. While this paper focused on how sexuality and sexual behavior are bases for the moral construction of women, women themselves made specific moral judgments regarding behavioral obligations to others, This content downloaded from 157.55.39.102 on Mon, 03 Oct 2016 05:12:46 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms WOMEN IN ISLAMIC SOCIETY 128 sometimes on the basis of kinship or social relations and sometimes on the basis of more universal principles of need and concern. Rural women were more likely to see a moral obligation to assist anyone who was sick, old or unemployed because of their need; urban men and women were more likely to feel these obligations were based on kinship relations to those afflicted. These examples of women's thinking on social responsibilities are based on abstract considerations of obligation, sometimes related to religious prescriptions and sometimes to personal interpretations. Women's notions of selfhood and their ability to talk abstractly about self or about relations to others were also affected by region and class differences because of variations in individual exposure to and education in religious and secular knowledge. The degree to which women could make abstract choices and conceive of things that did not seem possible under current conditions was partly reflected in degree of education and class circumstances. Presented with hypothetical situations for moral behavior or decision-making, more rural (and nonliterate) women than urban (and more educated) women were unable to conceive of possible scenarios-to say to whom one could talk or what they could do under certain circumstances. When choices were put in terms of concrete and immediate situations, these women deliberated and delivered judgme ts. Access to information and education may prepare people to abstract themselves from situations and to consider the abstract motives of action, although not all researchers believe education is so pivotal in the process (Street 1984). There has been a call for new frameworks to understand the development of gender differences in moral thinking and action as well as self-identity, to which the present discussion has been tied (Young 1984). Any such framework must consider both developmental aspects and contingency aspects of moral thinking in a way that (a) takes into account class and cultural differences, especially in normative conceptions of morality,9 and (b) clarifies the role of social relations in women's morality, in both normative constraint and cognitive, individual selection of behavior. Although much of the debate on women and morality has developed outside of anthropology, these debates may be informed by anthropological approaches to understanding the complex relationship between individuals and society. Anthropologists, especially those working in the Middle East, have a tradition of investigating the negotiation of cultural ideals and individual acceptance of these within social and economic contexts.

ORGANIZATIONAL DEVIANCE AND POLITICAL POLICING

AbstractDeviance in the policing of political activities may be either legal or behavioral. Both are generated to satisfy external demands without risking undeniable failure. Tactics of secrecy and scapegoating to avoid the perils of external scrutiny are supplemented by applying the principles of need to know and plausible deniability. The demand for results regardless of methods makes legal deviance inevitable and behavioral deviance very probable. Deviance in political policing is very unlikely to be inhibited significantly by legal reforms or public politics. Organizational changes are more likely to have some impact.