Primeval Sea Research Articles

The Wails of Heaven: The Representation of Water in Contemporary Southeast Asian Poetry

This essay examines how water is represented and portrayed in three contemporary Southeast Asian poems. The analysis of Sarah Gambito’s « Yolanda: A Typhoon », Khairani Barokka’s « Flood Season, Jakarta », and Cindy Childress’ « Easter Sunday in Phuket, Thailand » combines two approaches: the Blue Humanities and Trauma Studies. Through this, the essay seeks to understand the ability of poetry to demonstrate how communities derive meaning from water-centric natural disasters like typhoons, floods, and tsunamis. It also aims to discover how trauma as disruption or disturbance have caused these Southeast Asian communities to redefine, extend, or alter their relationship with the primeval sea.

Adsorption of cytosine on prebiotic siliceous clay surface induced with metal dications: Relevance to origin of life

Adsorption of protobiomolecules on primigenial mineral surfaces transacts a very specific and selective role in prebiotic chemical evolution. Cytosine (CYN) is a core constituent of genetic macromolecules i.e., DNA and RNA. A prebiotic simulation experiment following adsorption behaviour of a nucleic acid base CYN, as a function of pH, concentration, time and temperature on the surface of Montmorillonite (MMT), a prominent siliceous clay of smectite group having specific surface area, was studied systematically and methodically using UV, FTIR, SEM and XRD. Biologically significant metal dication [M2+ = Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+ and Cu2+] embeded surfaces of MMT (MMT-M2+) were prepared separately by cation-exchange approach. Results observed through UV spectral data reveal a very significant role of metal ions on the quantity of CYN adsorbed on different solid surfaces. The adsorption behaviour fitted well with Langmuir isotherm model and the adsorption isotherm shows monolayer formation of CYN (as adsorbate) on the surface of MMT and MMT-M2+(as adsorbent) showing Langmuir type adsorption. The calculated Langmuir adsorption parameters (KL& Xm) delineate appreciable interaction of CYN on MMT-Fe2+ surface following MMT-Cu2+ as compared to MMT alone and to other metal induced MMTs.In terms of % binding and Xm data, the effectiveness of various adsorbents in adsorption of CYN on MMT/MMT-M2+ at pH 6.6 and temperature 298K was found in the order; MMT-Fe2+> MMT-Cu2+> MMT > MMT-Ca2+> MMT-Mg2+. The results were further confirmed by SEM, XRD and FTIR which also support the outcomes. The present work throws light on the affinity of MMT clay (having multifarious applications in biological systems) with and without biogenic metal diions towards the surface interaction of nucleic acid base mimicking primeval sea shore/sea bed or hydrothermal vent conditions deciphering the phenomena that how biomonomers could have been protected from extreme hazardous conditions of primitive Earth and stabilized during chemical evolution and availed them for consecutive molecular evolution. Results further embark better adsorption capability of transition metal ion incorporated MMTs than the clay without metal ion and exchanged with alkaline Earth dications.

Leviathan, Rebuffing the Notion of Being Identified as a Natural Animal?

Leviathan and other sea-monsters in the Hebrew Bible have caused great dissonance amongst biblical scholars. No consensus exists amongst them on how to translate the Hebrew words referring to these mythical monsters. Therefore, a tendency developed amongst exegetes to transfigure these mythical beasts into ordinary animals, to translate them in a vague and general way, or to interpret them as mere symbols. This article investigates ways in which the assumed existence of Leviathan is identified and denied. To gain a better understanding of the nature and function of Leviathan, similar creatures in the ancient Near East are highlighted with a focus on sea-monsters and dragons associated with the primeval sea. These findings propose not only a more distinct epitome of Leviathan, but also of other monsters associated with the primeval waters (Rahab, tanninim, behemoth, and dag gadol), as depicted in the Old Testament. These beasts, interpreted against the magico-mythical cosmology of the ancient Near East and the Old Testament, should be seen as mythical creatures assumed to be real by the ancient audience of the biblical text. In striving for fidelity and loyalty to both the text and the current reader, translations should reflect the foreignness of Leviathan and other monsters or dragons to the contemporary reader.

Prebiotic studies on the interaction of zirconia nanoparticles and ribose nucleotides and their role in chemical evolution

AbstractStudies on the interaction of biomolecules with inorganic compounds, mainly mineral surfaces, are of great concern in identifying their role in chemical evolution and origins of life. Metal oxides are the major constituents of earth and earth-like planets. Hence, studies on the interaction of biomolecules with these minerals are the point of concern for the study of the emergence of life on different planets. Zirconium oxide is one of the metal oxides present in earth's crust as it is a part of several types of rocks found in sandy areas such as beaches and riverbeds, e.g. pebbles of baddeleyite. Different metal oxides have been studied for their role in chemical evolution but no studies have been reported about the role of zirconium oxide in chemical evolution and origins of life. Therefore, studies were carried out on the interaction of ribonucleic acid constituents, 5′-CMP (cytidine monophosphate), 5′-UMP (uridine monophosphate), 5′-GMP (guanosine monophosphate) and 5′-AMP (adenosine monophosphate), with zirconium oxide. Synthesized zirconium oxide particles were characterized by using vibrating sample magnetometer, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy. Zirconia particles were in the nanometre range, from 14 to 27 nm. The interaction of zirconium oxide with ribonucleic acid constituents was performed in the concentration range of 5 × 10−5–300 × 10−5 M. Interaction studies were carried out in three mediums; acidic (pH 4.0), neutral (pH 7.0) and basic (pH 9.0). At neutral pH, maximum interaction was observed. The interaction of zirconium oxide with 5′-UMP was 49.45% and with 5′-CMP 67.98%, while with others it was in between. Interaction studies were Langmurian in nature. Xm and KL values were calculated. Infrared spectral studies of ribonucleotides, metal oxide and ribonucleotide–metal oxide adducts were carried out to find out the interactive sites. It was observed that the nitrogen base and phosphate moiety of ribonucleotides interact with the positive charge surface of metal oxide. SEM was also carried out to study the adsorption. The results of the present study favour the important role of zirconium oxide in concentrating the organic molecules from their dilute aqueous solutions in primeval seas.

Role of Double Metal Cyanides in Chemical Evolution: Interaction of Ribose Nucelotides with Metal Hexacyanocobaltate(III)

Based on the hypothesis on the presence of double metal cyanides in the primeval seas and their role as prebiotic catalyst, adsorption of RNA components, 5I„-GMP, 5I„-AMP, 5I„-CMP and 5I„-UMP on metal(II) hexacyanocobaltate(III) (MHCCo; M=Mn, Fe, Ni, Zn) has been investigated. The adsorption data obtained at neutral pH were found to follow Langmuir adsorption in the concentration range 1.0 × 10-4 M to 3.0 × 10-4 M. The value of Langmuir constants, Xm and KL were calculated from the slope and intercept of the respective isotherms. On the basis of infrared (IR) spectral studies of ribonucleotides, MHHCo, and ribonucleotides-MHCCo adducts, we propose that the nitrogen base, carbonyl and phosphate moiety of ribose nucleotides interact with the outer divalent metal ion of the MHCCo. A higher affinity as well as larger amount of adsorption of all the four ribonucleotides was found on the surface of FeHCCo, having a surface area of 238.67 m2/g. Based on our finding, it is proposed that surface area of MHCCos plays an important role in ribonucleotides adsorption by MHCCos. Among nucleotides studied adsorption affinity of 5I„-AMP was found maximum.

Formamide-based synthesis of nucleobases by metal(II) octacyanomolybdate(IV): implication in prebiotic chemistry.

We propose that double metal cyanides that formed in primeval seas might have played a vital role in chemical evolution and the origin of life. An array of metal octacyanomolybdates (MOCMos) has been synthesized, and their role as catalyst in the formation of nucleobases from formamide has been studied. Formamide, a hydrolysis product of HCN, was taken as starting material for the formation of nucleobases. Recent studies support the presence of formamide on some celestial bodies. Metal octacyanomolybdates, MOCMos (M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd), are found to be highly efficient catalysts in the conversion of formamide into different nucleobases. Neat formamide is converted to purine, 4(3H)-pyrimidinone, cytosine, adenine, 9-(hydroxyacetyl)-purine, and thymine in good yield when using MOCMos. The products formed were characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry techniques. The results of our study show that insoluble double metal cyanides might have acted as efficient catalysts in the synthesis of various biologically important compounds (e.g., purines, pyrimidines) under primeval seas on Earth or elsewhere in our solar system.

Role of Metal Oxides in Chemical Evolution: Interaction of Ribose Nucleotides with Alumina

Interaction of ribonucleotides--namely, 5'-AMP, 5'-GMP, 5'-CMP, and 5'-UMP--with acidic, neutral, and basic alumina has been studied. Purine nucleotides showed higher adsorption on alumina in comparison with pyrimidine nucleotides under acidic conditions. Adsorption data obtained followed Langmuir adsorption isotherm, and X(m) and K(L) values were calculated. On the basis of infrared spectral studies of ribonucleotides, alumina, and ribonucleotide-alumina adducts, we propose that the nitrogen base and phosphate moiety of the ribonucleotides interact with the positive charge surface of alumina. Results of the present study may indicate the importance of alumina in concentrating organic molecules from dilute aqueous solutions in primeval seas in the course of chemical evolution on Earth.

Swimming With A Hundred Year Old Snapping Turtle

I spy his head above the waves, big as a man’s fist, black eyes peering at me, until he dives into darker, deeper water. Yesterday I saw him a foot from my outstretched hand, already tilting his great domed shell away. Ribbons of green moss rippled behind him, growing along the ridge of his back and down his long reptilian tail. He swims in everything he knows, and what he knows is never forgotten. Wisely, he fears me as if I were the Plague, which I am, sick unto death, swimming to heal myself in his primeval sea.

Interaction of ribose nucleotides with zinc oxide and relevance in chemical evolution

Metal oxides are the important constituents of the crusts of earth-like planets. Therefore, it is probable that metal oxides present on earth or in the primeval seas must have catalyzed different reactions in the course of chemical evolution and origin of life. The present report deals with the interaction of ribose nucleotides namely, 5′-AMP, 5′-GMP, 5′-CMP and 5′-UMP with zinc oxide. Adsorption of nucleotides on zinc oxide followed Langmuir adsorption isotherm. X m and K L values were calculated. Adsorption was found to be maximum in neutral medium as compared to acidic and basic medium. Infrared spectral studies of ribonucleotides, metal oxide and ribonucleotide–metal oxide adducts indicate that the nitrogen base and phosphate moiety of ribonucleotides interact with the positive charge surface of metal oxide. SEM studies were also done to support adsorption of nucleotides on zinc oxide. Results of the present study suggest the importance of metal oxides in concentrating the organic molecules from their dilute aqueous solutions in primeval seas.

Interaction of Tryptophan and Phenylalanine with Metal Ferrocyanides and Its Relevance in Chemical Evolution

The interaction of two naturally occurring aromatic alpha-amino acids, namely, tryptophan and phenylalanine, with zinc, nickel, cobalt, and copper ferrocyanides has been studied. Both amino acids showed a high adsorption affinity toward metal ferrocyanides at neutral pH (7.0). Adsorption trends followed the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. Values of the Langmuir constants K(L) and X(m) suggest tryptophan is a better adsorbate than phenylalanine. Zinc ferrocyanide showed the highest adsorption, while the minimum adsorption was found in the case of copper ferrocyanide. Infrared spectral studies of adsorbate, adsorbent, and adsorption adducts indicate that adsorption occurs because of the interaction of adsorbate molecules with outer divalent metal ions present in the lattice of metal ferrocyanides. The present investigation supports the hypothesis that metal ferrocyanides might have concentrated the biomonomers on their surface in primeval seas during the course of chemical evolution.

Unity from duality

When, in the primeval sea, creatures first began to crawl, "right" and "left" came into being, yielding neuronal nets to control response to the sidedness of stimuli. In the half billion years of moving and sensing, two brains have evolved, the right and the left; and human experience now shows them to be roughly equivalent, potentially independent, conscious entities. This dramatic fact is evidenced by "split-brain" patients and by numerous cases of therapeutic removal of either hemisphere. Equally dramatic, of course, is that there is not the slightest sign of this duality in everyday experience, the right and left visual fields are seamlessly knit, and cross purpose is absent in the moment to moment operation of the two cerebral hemispheres. This unity is constantly synthesized by the 100,000,000 fibers passing from each hemisphere to the other; the vastness of that interchange emphasized upon comparison with the mere 1,000,000 fibers conveying all the visual world from each eye. With the large distances in the human brain some 100+ ms may commonly transpire for one hemisphere to send to and receive a response from the other. Efficiency thus demands that most neuronal calculation occur within rather than between hemispheres, thereby promoting differences in the characteristic capabilities of each alone, i.e., "hemispheric specialization". Despite this there is a bewildering bilaterality of activation revealed by fMRI for most cognitive tasks. In the absence of the forebrain commissures brainstem systems can be shown, in macaques, also to participate in the unification of behavioral result from the actions of the separated hemispheres. The system favors synthesis from congruent (visual) input to the two hemispheres; but in the face of incompatible hemispheric input, the two hemispheres are able to work out an accommodation in their control of subcortical systems.

Role of transition metal ferrocyanides (II) in chemical evolution

Due to ease of formation of cyanide under prebiotic conditions, cyanide ion might have formed stable complexes with transition metal ions on the primitive earth. In the course of chemical evolution insoluble metal cyano complexes, which settled at the bottom of primeval sea could have formed peptide and metal amino acid complexes through adsorption processes of amino acids onto these metal cyano complexes.

Prebiotic synthesis of amino acids from formaldehyde and hydroxylamine in a modified sea medium.

In the course of a study of a possible mechanism for chemical evolution in the primeval sea, we have found a novel reaction for peptide formation from glycine and urea in an aqueous solution. Glycine reacted with urea to give N-carbamylglycine, N-carbamylglycylglycine and glycylglycine. This reaction provides a new pathway for the prebiotic synthesis of peptides.

A possible prebiotic peptide formation from glycinamide and related compounds.

We examined an experimental approach to the genesis of protocells in the primeval sea. Glycine polymers with an average chain length of 12 were formed from glycinamide in fluctuating systems (pH 7.2, 80 degrees C, 20 cycles). The resulting glycine polymers gave aggregated leaflet-like structures. A solution of the glycine polymers provided stacked disc-shaped structures in the presence of LiBr and gave sheet structures in the presence of dichloroacetic acid. The shapes of these organized structures were correlated with their molecular structures.

Novel formation of alpha-amino acids from alpha-oxo acids and ammonia in an aqueous medium.

In the course of a study of possible mechanisms for chemical evolution in the primeval sea, we found the novel formation of alpha-amino acids and N-acylamino acids from alpha-oxo acids and ammonia in an aqueous medium. Glyoxylic acid reacted with ammonia to form N-oxalylglycine, which gave glycine in a 5-39% yield after hydrolysis with 6N HC1. Pyruvic acid and ammonia reacted to give N-acetylalanine, which formed alanine in a 3-7% overall yield upon hydrolysis. The pH optima in these reactions were between pH 3 and 4. These reactions were further extended to the formation of other amino acids. Glutamic acid, phenylalanine and alanine were formed from alpha-ketoglutaric acid, phenylpyruvic acid and oxaloacetic acid, respectively, under similar conditions. N-Succinylglutamic acid was obtained as an intermediate in glutamic acid synthesis. Phenylacetylphenylalanineamide was also isolated as an intermediate in phenylalanine synthesis. Alanine, rather than aspartic acid, was produced from oxaloacetic acid. These reactions provide a novel route for the prebiotic synthesis of amino acids. A mechanism for the reactions will be proposed.

A novel way for the formation of α-amino acids and their derivatives in an aqueous medium

In the course of a study of possible mechanism for chemical evolution in the primeval sea, we observed the formation of α-amino acids and N-acylamino acids from α-oxo acids and ammonia in an aqueous medium. Glyoxylic acid reacted with ammonia to form N-oxalylglycine, which gave glycine in a 5–39% yield after hydrolysis with 6N HCl. Similarly when glyoxylic acid was treated with methylamine it yielded N-oxalylsarcosine, which could be hydrolyzed to sarcosine with 17–25% overall yield upon hydrolysis. Pyruvic acid and ammonia reacted to give N-acetylalanine, which formed alanine in a 3–7% overall yield upon hydrolysis. The pH optima in these reactions were pH 3–4. These reactions were further extended to the formation of other amino acids. Glutamic acid, phenylalanine and serine were formed from α-ketoglutaric acid, phenylpyruvic acid and hydroxypyruvic acid, respectively, under similar conditions, N-Succinylglutamic acid was obtained as an intermediate for glutamic acid synthesis. Phenylacetylphenylalanineamide was also isolated as an intermediate for phenylalanine synthesis. Alanine, rather than aspartic acid, was produced from oxaloacetic acid. These reactions provide a novel route for the prebiotic synthesis of amino acids. A mechanism for the reactions is proposed.

Novel formation of alpha-amino acids and their derivatives from oxo acids and ammonia in an aqueous medium.

In the course of a study of chemical evolution of the primeval sea, a novel reaction of carbonyl compounds with ammonia was found. Glyoxylic acid reacted with ammonia to afford N-oxalylglycine, which gave glycine in a 3-20% yield after 6 N HCl hydrolysis. Similarly, glyoxylic acid was treated with methylamine to give N-oxalylsarcosine, which afforded sarcosine in a 9-12% yield upon hydrolysis. Pyruvic acid reacted with ammonia to give N-acetylalanine, which gave alanine in a 1-4% yield upon hydrolysis. These reactions provide a novel and facile route to alpha-amino acids and their derivatives. A mechanism for the reactions is proposed.

水溶液中でのα‐オキソ酸からのα‐アミノ酸の形成

In the course of experimental studies on chemical evolution in primeval sea, we discovered a novel way for amino acid formation via N-acylamino acid from an aqueous mixture of α-oxo acid and ammonium sulfate. Glycine and alanine were produced from glyoxylate and pyruvate through N-oxalylglycine and N-acetylalanine, respectively. The process was extended to the formation of other amino acids. Serine, glutamic acid, and phenylalanine were produced from hydroxypyruvate, α-ketoglutarate, and phenylpyruvate, respectively, in aqueous medium under similar conditions. In the case of glutamic acid formation, N-succinylglutamic acid, which was partially converted to pyroglutamic acid was found as an intermediate. However, in the case of phenylalanine formation, N-phenylacetylphenylalanineamide (mp 190_??_191°C) was isolated and identified by IR (3170, 1660, 1640, 1530cm-1), NMR [δ (ppm)=7.18 (10 H, s), 4.45 (1 H, m), 3.38 (2 H, s), 3.20_??_2.60 (2 H, m)], MS [282 (M+), 238], and traditional synthesis, as an intermediate, instead of N-phenylacetylphenylalanine. From oxaloacetate in similar conditions, alanine was produced instead of the expected aspartic acid. In these reactions, the decarboxylation processes were essential for yielding N-acylamino acids when employing α-oxo acids except for glyoxylic acid (R-CO-COOH, R_??_H).

A working hypothesis on the interdependent genesis of nucleotide bases, protein amino acids, and primitive genetic code.

In the course of experimental approach to the chemical evolution in the primeval sea, we have found that the main products from formaldehyde and hydroxylamine are glycine, alanine, serine, aspartic acid etc., and the products from glycine and formaldehyde are serine and aspartic acid. Guanine is found in the two-letter genetic codons of all these amino acids.

Characterization of marigranules and marisomes, organized particles with elastin-like structures.

Marigranules, highly organized particles of 0.3 to 2.5 μm in diameter, were produced from a reaction of glycine and acidic, basic, and aromatic amino acids at 105°C for 8 weeks under a N2 atmosphere in a modified sea medium enriched with six essential transition elements. The resulting marigranules were purified by centrifugation in ascending concentrations of Ficoll 400 (5 to 20%). The marigranules (C, 58.22; H, 3.76; N, 14.23; ash, 7.62%) were ununiformly packed with KOH-soluble polymers and they also had membrane-like structures. Their infrared spectrum suggested the presence of peptide bonds. The interior structure of marigranules was solubilized by treatment with KOH solution. The KOH-solubilized component was characterized by gel filtration and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The component consisted of polymers with molecular weights of 1,800, 6,800, 15,000, and 82,000 daltons, and 34% of the total nitrogen was revealed as primary amino groups after treatment with elastase. This suggests that the polymers have at least one peptide bond per three amino acid residues. Thus, it appears that the interior of marigranules consists of polymers with an elastin-like structure. The surface structure of marigranules was solubilized with SDS and Triton X-100. The SDS-solubilized components were 3,400, 350, and 150 daltons in size. We found that organized particles were phase-separated from a concentrated aqueous solution of freeze-dried powder prepared from the reaction mixture mentioned above, and we called the particles marisomes. Marisomes (C, 63.67; H, 6.71; N, 10.56; ash, 6.54%) had a spherical structure of 2 to 3 μm in diameter. They were found to be empty particles with a soft envelope by scanning electron microscopic observation. Marisomes were completely solubilized by SDS, ethanol, and Triton X-100. The solubilized marisomes were phaseseparated again by dialysis against water. Marisomes were also solubilized in boiling water and were phase-separated again on cooling. Thus the system was reversible. Marisomes mainly consisted of lipophilic polymers with molecular weights of approx. 3, 400 daltons. The molecular size and lipophilic properties of marisomes were quite similar to those of the surface structure of marigranules. Taking into consideration the characteristics of both the particles, we were led to the working hypothesis that a marisome may be the precursor of a marigranule, that is, the marisome was first phase-separated from the reaction mixture and then amino acids and their oligomers were absorbed into the marisome, in which they were polymerized to give elastin-like polymers with cross-links. Thus, both the organized particles, marisomes and marigranules, were good models for the course of evolution of protocells. In addition, the modified sea medium proved to be a good simulative marine environment for studies of chemical evolution in the primeval sea.