Prime-time Television Programs Research Articles

Sex on the Shore: Wishful Identification and Parasocial Relationships as Mediators in the Relationship Between Jersey Shore Exposure and Emerging Adults' Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors

Exposure to highly sexualized television programs has been correlated with emerging adults' sexual attitudes and behaviors. However, little is known about the variables that may mediate these relationships. The studies presented here investigated wishful identification and parasocial relationships withJersey Shore cast members as mediators in the relationship between exposure to Jersey Shore and permissive sexual attitudes. In Study 1, a secondary examination of content analysis data suggested that sex was pervasive on Jersey Shore. Analyses revealed that, on average, one sexual instance occurred every minute on Jersey Shore. The frequency of sexual instances on Jersey Shore was significantly higher than the frequency of sexual instances in other popular primetime television programs. In Study 2, data collected from a sample of emerging adults revealed a positive relationship between Jersey Shore exposure and permissive sexual attitudes mediated by participants' wishful identification and parasocial relationships with Jersey Shore cast members. Permissive sexual attitudes were positively correlated with sexual activity. Results are consistent with predictions made by cultivation and social cognitive theory. The relationships between television exposure, wishful identification, parasocial relationships, and emerging adults' sexual attitudes and behaviors are the focus of the discussion.

Portrayals of Reproductive and Sexual Health on Prime-Time Television

Prime-time broadcast television provides health information and establishes norms for millions of people in the United States (Beck, 2004; Brodie et al., 2001; Murphy & Cody, 2003; Rideout, 2008). To understand what people may be learning about reproductive and sexual health, a content analysis was conducted of story lines from the 10 most popular prime-time television programs in 2009, 2010, and 2011. Variables that were measured included the frequency of reproductive and sexual health issues, the level of health information, the type of information portrayed, the gain and loss frames, the presence of stigma, the tone, and the type of role model portrayed. Eighty-seven of the 589 health story lines dealt with reproductive and sexual health, and the most common issues were pre- and postterm pregnancy complications. The majority of these story lines had a moderate or weak level of information and included specifics about treatment and symptoms but not prevention. Just over half of the issues were framed in terms of losses, meaning nonadoption of a behavior change will result in negative outcomes. Twenty-four percent of reproductive and sexual health story lines involved stigma—usually stigma related to sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Most story lines were portrayed as serious and the majority of issues happened to positive role models. The implications of these portrayals for the viewing public are discussed.

Transnationalism and media groups in independent television production in the UK and Spain

In recent years, the growth and consolidation of the independent television production industry has stirred up a great deal of media group interest in entering this market. Through an original sample of prime-time television programmes in the UK and Spain and in-depth interviews with practitioners, this article offers an empirically grounded analysis of the presence of media groups and the strategies developed in this industry, with a particular focus on synergies at the transnational level. The results show that production markets are dominated by national media groups, that there are few pan-European synergies, and that regulation plays a key role in defining this market.

Sexualization of Adolescent Boys

This study ( N = 911) investigated how exposure to sexualizing prime-time television programs, music television, men’s magazines, and pornographic websites was related to the internalization of appearance ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance among adolescent boys. A structural equation model showed direct relationships between exposure to sexualizing television and pornographic websites and the internalization of appearance ideals. Indirect relationships between these types of sexualizing media, and self-objectification and body surveillance through the internalization of appearance ideals were also reported. A direct relationship with self-objectification was only found for sexualizing pornographic websites. Discussion warns attention for adolescent boys at risk of sexualization.

Nurses and doctors in prime time series: The dynamics of depicting professional power

This essay sketches a comparison of 1960s’ television portrayals with those of the present to show that a limited and incomplete portrayal of nurses has been an enduring feature of prime-time medical television programs. They have depicted physicians then and now as captains of the medical ship and nurses then and now their ancillary and ill-defined helpers. As the comparison makes clear, part of nurses' lack of clear power in TV medical scenarios has to do with the explicit and implicit clout exercised by physicians' organizations to present doctor images effectively. That clout contrasts with nursing organizations' lack of attempts or ability (it's hard to gauge which) to influence network television's most prominent representations of their roles and the environments in which they work.

Understanding Sexual Objectification: A Comprehensive Approach Toward Media Exposure and Girls' Internalization of Beauty Ideals, Self-Objectification, and Body Surveillance

The relationship between exposure to sexually objectifying music television, primetime television programs, fashion magazines, and social networking sites and the internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance was examined among adolescent girls (N = 558). A structural equation model showed direct relationships between sexually objectifying media and the internalization of beauty ideals, and indirect relationships between sexually objectifying media and self-objectification, and body surveillance through the internalization of beauty ideals. The direct relationships between sexually objectifying media and the internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance differed across the types of sexually objectifying media. The discussion focuses on the implications of these findings to explain self-objectification among girls.

Brand placement in scripted and non-scripted Belgian and US programs on Belgian prime time television

Based on an extensive literature review into the characteristics of brand placements and their possible link to placement effectiveness, a brand placement coding framework is developed which, besides program genre and origin, registers the frequency and presence of three essential brand placement characteristics: (1) modality type; (2) prominence level; and (3) plot connection level. As such, this coding instrument can serve as a starting point for future effectiveness research. To explore the cross-cultural relevance of brand placement, a content analysis of one week of prime time television programs broadcasted in Flanders was conducted to examine the differences in frequency and type of brand placements between scripted and non-scripted US and Flemish (Dutch-speaking Belgian) television programs. While no differences concerning frequency were observed, types of brand placement differed significantly between program genres and countries of origin. Flemish marketers more often place their brands in scripted programs, while American marketers seek out placement opportunities in non-scripted programs more often. Overall, American marketeers integrate their brands more professionally in television content than Flemish marketeers, no matter the program genre. An agenda for future research is presented.

Child and Adolescent Exposure to Food and Beverage Brand Appearances During Prime-Time Television Programming

The food industry disproportionately markets to young people through product placements. Children and adolescents may be more susceptible to these disguised persuasive attempts. Quantify incidence and youth exposure to food and beverage brand appearances within shows on prime-time TV. Data on the number of food, beverage, and restaurant brand appearances within shows during prime-time programming in 2008 were purchased from Nielsen and analyzed by product category and company in 2010. Exposure to these brand appearances by children, adolescents, and adults were examined and compared with exposure to prime-time TV advertisements for the same categories and companies using additional Nielsen data. Food, beverage, and restaurant brands appeared a total of 35,000 times within prime-time TV programming examined by Nielsen in 2008. Regular soft drinks, traditional restaurants (i.e., not quickserve), and energy/sports drinks made up 60% of all brand appearances. Young people viewed relatively few of these appearances with one notable exception. Coca-Cola products were seen 198 times by the average child and 269 times by the average adolescent during prime-time shows over the year, accounting for 70% of child exposure and 61% of adolescent exposure to brand appearances. One show, American Idol, accounted for more than 95% of these exposures. Exposure of children to Coca-Cola products through traditional advertisements was much less common. Brand appearances for most food industry companies, except for Coca-Cola, are relatively rare during prime-time programming with large youth audiences. Coca-Cola has pledged to refrain from advertising to children, yet the average child views almost four Coke appearances on prime-time TV every week. This analysis reveals a substantial, potential loophole in current food industry self-regulatory pledges to advertise only better-for-you foods to children.

Nutrient Content of Food-Related Advertisements Seen by Women During US-Based Spanish- and English-Language Prime-time Television Programs

Nutrient Content of Food-Related Advertisements Seen by Women During US-Based Spanish- and English-Language Prime-time Television Programs

Variations in Program Loudness and Strategies for Loudness Management

Wide variations in program-to-program loudness form the basis of many viewer complaints. The first step toward a strategy for loudness management is an understanding of the problem and its magnitude. Television programs are typically delivered without a specification for loudness. As a result, the loudness of television programs can vary significantly. Some broadcast networks have requested that programs be delivered at a specified loudness. Have program producers been meeting the delivery specification? For programs delivered where loudness has not been specified, how much does loudness vary program-to-program? — In this analysis, 77 primetime television programs were recorded for analysis to determine their loudness. Loudness was measured using the International Telecommunications Union (ITU-R)BS.1770 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">1</sup> standard. The analysis shows how consistent loudness is for a network. For networks that specify a target loudness, the analysis shows how well the target is being met.

Prime-Time Television Program Ownership in a Post-Fin/Syn World

The expiration of the financial interest and syndication rules in 1995 ushered in a decade of television conglomeration in the United States. The elimination the rules fueled joint studio and network control and resulted in high concentration in prime-time program ownership. From 2004–05 through 2007–08, six corporations held a financial interest in between 89.4% and 94.7% of prime-time programs with attributable ownership on the debut broadcast schedules. Over the same seasons, the six corporations held an interest in between 87.0% and 93.9% of the scripted series and mini-series on prominent general entertainment premium and basic cable services.

III. Sex and Censorship: The Case of Buffy the Vampire Slayer

In this article, I will discuss the impact that television fiction may have upon our understanding of women’s sexuality and sexual oppression. Using the cult television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (BtVS) (Whedon, 1997–2003) as a case study, I argue that some censorship deprives viewers of the opportunity to reflect upon and debate sexual mores. Public concern over the effects of television on young people has led to much empirical investigation, principally regarding television violence and, to a lesser extent, sexual content. There is no evidence to suggest that sexual material directly influences young people’s sexual attitudes or behaviour (Donnerstein and Smith, 2001; Malamuth and Impett, 2001); furthermore, research has been criticized for using ‘simple exposure’ to sexual scenes (Bauserman,1998) as measures; the relationship between television viewing and behaviour is likely to be complex, mediated through historical, cultural and social contexts. Young viewers ‘read’ sexual scenes through the lens of their own prior experiences and developing sexual identities and are capable of interpreting moral messages underlying scenes of a sexual nature; their views are often influenced by broader moral values such as trust and mutual respect (Brown, 2000; Levine, 2002; Bragg and Buckingham, 2003). Indeed, it has been argued that the overarching moral messages contained in television fiction are more important than specific content. Selnow (1990) analysed a range of prime-time television programmes and concluded that although they contained scenes of sex and violence, they also conveyed many positive values; people view the whole programme, not just the controversial scenes. Arguably all but the youngest of viewers understand the values being conveyed.

Constructing Gender Stereotypes Through Social Roles in Prime-Time Television

Using a sample of 124 prime-time television programs airing on the 6 broadcast networks during the 2005–06 season, this study examined the social roles enacted by female and male characters. The findings confirm that female characters continue to inhabit interpersonal roles involved with romance, family, and friends. In contrast, male characters are more likely to enact work-related roles. Moreover, programs employing one or more women writers or creators are more likely to feature both female and male characters in interpersonal roles whereas programs employing all-male writers and creators are more likely to feature both female and male characters in work roles.

The Portrayal of Sexual Intercourse on Prime-Time Programming

This study examines portrayals of acts and consequences of sexual intercourse on prime-time television programs. Results indicate that few types of consequences of intercourse are presented, headed by emotional outcomes. Both acts of intercourse and their consequences receive only minimal focus within programs. Consequences are nearly equally positively and negatively valenced, but have a slight leaning toward being portrayed as transient and emotionally insignificant. Movies include the greatest number of acts of sexual intercourse and the most consequences for this behavior. Generic differences are also identified in the contextual presentation of consequences. Findings are discussed in light of effects on viewers.

From Sex to Sexuality: Exposing the Heterosexual Script on Primetime Network Television

Although it is widely recognized that sexual content pervades television, research rarely examines how television's sexual messages are gendered and occur in a relational context. This study describes the development and implementation of a new coding scheme to evaluate sexual content from a feminist perspective. Merging scripting theory (Simon and Gagnon, 1986) with the theory of compulsory heterosexuality (Rich, 1980), we explicate a heteronormative and dominant sexual script, the Heterosexual Script, and assessed its presence in the 25 primetime television programs viewed most frequently by adolescents. Our codes captured depictions of boys/men and girls/women thinking, feeling, and behaving in relational and sexual encounters in ways that sustain power inequalities between men and women. Male characters most frequently enacted the Heterosexual Script by actively and aggressively pursuing sex. Less frequently but still at high rates were depictions of female characters willingly objectifying themselves and being judged by their sexual conduct.

Alcohol imagery on New Zealand television

BackgroundTo examine the extent and nature of alcohol imagery on New Zealand (NZ) television, a content analysis of 98 hours of prime-time television programs and advertising was carried out over 7 consecutive days' viewing in June/July 2004. The main outcome measures were number of scenes in programs, trailers and advertisements depicting alcohol imagery; the extent of critical versus neutral and promotional imagery; and the mean number of scenes with alcohol per hour, and characteristics of scenes in which alcohol featured.ResultsThere were 648 separate depictions of alcohol imagery across the week, with an average of one scene every nine minutes. Scenes depicting uncritical imagery outnumbered scenes showing possible adverse health consequences of drinking by 12 to 1.ConclusionThe evidence points to a large amount of alcohol imagery incidental to storylines in programming on NZ television. Alcohol is also used in many advertisements to market non-alcohol goods and services. More attention needs to be paid to the extent of alcohol imagery on television from the industry, the government and public health practitioners. Health education with young people could raise critical awareness of the way alcohol imagery is presented on television.

Working Hard or Hardly Working? Gender, Humor, and the Performance of Domestic Chores in Television Commercials

This content analysis updates the literature regarding gender and the depiction of housework in television commercials by exploring not just the distribution of chores but also the success or failure of chore performance. A sample of 477 commercials featuring domestic chores that aired in a week of primetime television programming on all of the broadcast networks was analyzed. Among the key findings: Male characters' performance of chores was often humorously inept as measured by negative responses from others, lack of success, and unsatisfactory outcomes. These depictions have important implications for the learning of gender roles from television exposure.

On-Air Promotion Effectiveness for Programs of Different Genres, Familiarity, and Audience Demographics

This analysis of 4,469 promotions carried in on-air promos during prime-time and weekend sports television programs established the impact on prime-time ratings of frequency of promotion, distance, construction, and length. The analysis also examines the impact of these promotion variables for programs of different genres, targeted to different genders and ages, and with different degrees of familiarity. Whether the promotion aired in weekend sports or inside prime-time made little difference to the overall results, but notable differences emerged for programs of different genres, familiarity, and audience demographics. The findings apply to industry practices and contribute to refining salience theory.

Health Related Content in Prime-Time Television Programming

This study identified, content analyzed, and described the health-related content (HRC) presented in the top-ranked prime-time network programs for the age 2 to 11 year-old category. The results reveal that viewers see one HRC-containing scene approximately every four minutes. Foods and alcoholic beverages are frequently shown and consumed. Smoking, drug abuse, and promiscuous sex are relatively uncommon. In most scenes, the HRC is not directly related to the main point of the scene. The characters involved in HRC-containing scenes tend to be slender white men. In addition, many of the HRC-containing scenes portray negative health behaviors.

Developing Preservation Appraisal Criteria for a Public Broadcasting Station

The WGBH Educational Foundation is a noncommercial viewer- and listener-supported public radio and television station in Boston. It holds licenses for six broadcast operations and produces nearly a third of all PBS prime-time television and on-line programming including Nova, Frontline, American Experience, ExxonMobil Masterpiece Theatre, Mystery! and Victory Garden.